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antecedents, the documented Turkic khaganates from 552 CE, medieval migrations and states, and modern developments through 2016. It is not limited to 500–1300. Names of ancient confederations do not by themselves establish their language, and medieval states should not be equated with modern nations. The Xiongnu are included as a debated antecedent, not as an unequivocally Turkic state. Dates and inherited historical interpretations remain an editorial draft awaiting specialist review.","prologue",{"title":410,"date":411,"markdown":412,"id":413},"3rd century (Before Christ)","3rd century BC","### 209 BCE: Modu and the Xiongnu\n\nModu (Maodun) became chanyu in 209 BCE and consolidated the Xiongnu confederation. Its ethnolinguistic composition remains disputed. Savelyev and Jeong (2020) discuss evidence compatible with Turkic-speaking components while emphasizing the limits of connecting populations, languages and later Huns. The confederation should therefore not be presented as a uniformly Turkic nation or the first securely attested Turkic state. A modern military commemoration dated to 209 BCE is not proof of continuous institutional descent.\n\n[Encyclopaedia Iranica: Xiongnu](https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xiongnu/); [Savelyev and Jeong, 2020](https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2020.18).","xiongnu",{"title":415,"date":415,"markdown":416,"id":417},"4th century","Hun movements in the later fourth century reshaped the Pontic steppe and its relations with the Roman world. The Huns’ linguistic composition and relationship to the Xiongnu remain debated; this is context for later Turkic history, not proof of a single continuous people. [Savelyev and Jeong (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2020.18).","century-4",{"title":419,"date":419,"markdown":420,"id":421},"5th century","Sabir and early Bulgar groupings appear in accounts of fifth-century steppe movements. Their changing alliances and disputed locations should not be reduced to a precise map of modern ethnic groups. [Encyclopaedia Iranica: Khazars](https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khazars/).","century-5",{"title":423,"date":423,"markdown":424,"id":425},"6th century","## Middle Ages/Turks\n\n| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n| `545` | A Western Wei envoy to the Altai Mountains. First mention of Bumin, as the leader of the Ashina clan (the leaders of Turks). |\n| `552` | Bumin declares independence of the Turks around Altai mountains, conquers Ötüken in Mongolian Plateau and takes the title khagan (qaghan). His empire is known as Turkic Khaganate or more popularly Göktürk (Celestial Turk). |\n| `552` | Shortly after sending his brother Istemi to the Western Regions as his yabgu (vassal), Bumin Qaghan dies. His elder son Issık (Keluo) becomes the khagan. |\n| `554` | Bumin's second son Muqan Qaghan becomes the khagan. After a series of successful campaigns the Göktürks begin to control the silk road. |\n| `568` | An alliance with the Byzantine Empire under Justin II is formed after a delegation of the Turks led by Sogdian Maniah arrive in Constantinople to trade silk with the Byzantines. |\n| `572` | Taspar Qaghan, the youngest son of Bumin becomes the khagan after the death of his brother. |\n| `576` | The alliance with the Byzantines ceases after the Byzantines (contrary to their agreement) accept a treaty with Avars, enemies of the Göktürks. The Göktürks seize a Byzantine stronghold in the Crimea. |\n| `580` | Agathias included within Hunnic circle these tribes: the Vurugunds,[a] Ultizurs, as well as the Turkic tribes Cotrigurs and Utigurs.[\\[2\\]](#reference-2)[\\[3\\]](#reference-3) |\n| `581` | Tardush, the second yabgu in the west, lay siege to Tauric Chersonesus in Crimea. |\n| `581` | Two rival states in China begin to pay annual tribute to the Turkic Khaganate. |\n| `584` | Taspar Qaghan dies, civil war breaks out. (Ishbara Qaghan vs. Apa Qaghan) Tardush interferes. |\n| `587` | Tardush de facto ruler of the west. Period of dual khaganates. From now on the west khaganate is also called Onok. |\n| `588` | First Perso-Turkic War. An attempt of the Turkic Khaganate to invade Afghanistan. But Bahram Chobin of Persia defeats the Turkic Khaganate. |\n| `593` | End of Turkic interregnum. |\n\n## Establishment of the Göktürk Khaganate\n\nThe Göktürk Khaganate, the earliest securely attested state bearing the Türk name, emerged in 552 CE through the rebellion of the Ashina clan against their Rouran overlords in the Mongolian steppes. Bumin (Tumen), leader of the Ashina Turks who controlled iron mines in the Altai Mountains, capitalized on Rouran internal divisions and economic leverage from weapon production to assert independence. In coordination with his brother Istämi, Bumin allied with the Western Wei dynasty of China, defeating Rouran forces under Anagui Khan and proclaiming himself Il Qaghan (Sovereign Emperor) that year, thereby unifying disparate Turkic tribes under a dual khaganate structure with eastern and western wings.[\\[5\\]](#reference-5)[\\[6\\]](#reference-6)\n\nThis establishment marked a shift from tribal vassalage to imperial hegemony, as the Göktürks rapidly subdued neighboring groups like the Tiele and expanded control over the eastern Eurasian steppes, leveraging cavalry tactics and the tengri sky-god ideology central to Turkic rulership. Chinese chronicles, such as the Zhou Shu, record Bumin's envoys seeking recognition from the Western Wei emperor, who granted titles in exchange for Rouran captives, confirming the khaganate's consolidation by late 552. Bumin's death shortly thereafter—likely from natural causes—led to succession by his son Issik Qaghan (Kara Issik), while Istämi governed the western territories, solidifying the khaganate's bipolar administration that balanced power between siblings to prevent fragmentation.[\\[7\\]](#reference-7)\n\nLater Orkhon inscriptions from the 8th century affirm this founding narrative, attributing to Bumin and Istämi the division of the world between them—\"When the blue sky above and the brown earth below were created, between them a human being was created... My ancestors Bumin Kagan and Istemi Kagan ruled over the people\"—emphasizing causal factors like tribal unification and anti-Rouran campaigns as foundational to Göktürk identity and expansion. By 555 CE, the Rouran khaganate had fully collapsed, with remnants submitting to Chinese states or integrating into Göktürk domains, enabling the new khaganate to extract tribute and project power across Central Asia.[\\[5\\]](#reference-5)[\\[6\\]](#reference-6)\n","century-6",{"title":427,"date":427,"markdown":428,"id":429},"7th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`609`| Shibi Khan becomes the khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. |\n|`615`| Shibi Khan's advisor is executed by Pei Ju at a negotiation in Mayi; the khan retaliates by invading Yanmen Commandery during a visit there by Emperor Yang, besieging him and his court at the commandery seat (present-day Daixian, Shanxi). He lifts the siege following a false report from his wife, the Sui princess Yicheng, that the khaganate is under attack from the north. |\n|`618`| Tong Yabghu Qaghan becomes the khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate. According to some accounts he is also known as Ziebel the founder of Khazar state (or Khazaria) in Caucasus as a part of Onok. |\n|`619`| Hephthalites/Gokturk raids of 614-616. Tong Yabghu Qaghan raids as far as to Isfahan; but is repelled. |\n|`625`| Alliance with the Byzantine Empire under Heraclius when the emperor requests military aid from the Turks under Tong Yabghu. |\n|`626`| Illig Qaghan takes advantage of the Incident at Xuanwu Gate and charges to Wei River. |\n|`627`| Perso-Turkic war of 627–629. Böri Shad conquers Derbend in Caucasus and raids Azerbaijan. |\n|`628`| Xueyantuo (under the command of Yi'nan) and Toquz Oghuz defeats Yukuk Shad (shad of northern side) and Ashina She'er (shad of western side) of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. |\n|`630`| Tang China supports a revolt of vassals of eastern khaganate. Tang army under the command of Li Jing defeats the Eastern Turkic Khaganate at Battle of Yinshan. Emperor Taizong says It's enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River (626).[\\[4\\]](#reference-4) East khaganate becomes vassal of China. |\n|`632`| Kubrat unified and ruled Old Great Bulgaria. |\n|`638`| The two wings of the Western Turkic Kaganate (Nushibi and Tulo) split, with the Ili river as the boundary. |\n|`639`| Ashina Jiesheshuai's unsuccessful raid against Jiucheng Palace. |\n|`640`| Yukuk Shad tries to unite the Onok tribes, but soon escapes to Kunduz in Afghanistan. |\n|`642`| Western Turkic soldiers retreat from Gaochang and the kingdom is captured by Tang dynasty forces. Military conflicts against the Tang dynasty continue for the next few decades. |\n|`644`| Western Turks defeated in a battle against the Tang dynasty in Karasahr. |\n|`648`| Western Turks lose a battle against the Tang dynasty in Kucha. |\n|`650`| Khazars defeat Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah of Rashidun Arabs in Caucasus. |\n|`657`| China dispatches a military campaign that defeats the western khaganate. Western khaganate becomes vassal of China. During power vacuum, Turgesh tribe emerges as the leading power of Onok. |\n|`664`| Peace treaty between Caucasian Albania King Javanshir (636-669) and Caucasian Huns Elteber Alp Ilitver with conditions of dynastic marriage union, Huns' takeover of all Albanian fortresses, annual tribute to the Huns, and Huns obligation to defend Albania from Arab aggression.[\\[5\\]](#reference-5) |\n|`679`| Ashide Wenfu and Ashide Fengzhi who were Turkic leaders of Danyu Da Douhufu made Ashina Nishu Beg a Turkic qaghan and revolts against Tang dynasty.[\\[6\\]](#reference-6) |\n|`680`| Pei Xingjian defeated Ashina Nishu Beg and his army. Ashina Nishu Beg was killed by his men.[\\[6\\]](#reference-6) |\n|`680`| Ashide Wenfu made Ashina Funian a qaghan and revolted against Tang dynasty.[\\[6\\]](#reference-6) |\n|`681`| Ashide Wenfu and Ashina Funian surrendered to Pei Xingjian. 54 Turks (including Ashide Wenfu, Ashina Funian) were publicly executed in the Eastern Market of Chang'an.[\\[6\\]](#reference-6) |\n|`681`| Ashina Kutlug revolts with the remnants of Ashina Funian's men. |\n|`682`| Ashina Kutlug becomes Ilterish Qaghan and establishes the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate. |\n|`685`| Ilterish Qaghan defeats the Chinese in Hin Chu.[citation needed] |\n|`693`| Barsbek proclaims the creation of the Kyrgyz Khaganate. |\n|`694`| Death of Ilterish Qaghan. Qapaghan Qaghan becomes the second khagan. |\n|`695`| Qapagan recognises Barsbek as the Khagan of the Kyrgyz. |\n|`698`| Qapagan annexes Turkestan[citation needed] (On Oq territory).[\\[7\\]](#reference-7) against Turgesh. |\n\n## Göktürk Apogee and Tang Conflicts\n\nThe Eastern Göktürk Khaganate attained its zenith in the early 7th century under Illig Qaghan (r. 620–630), who restored centralized authority following decades of fratricidal strife and fragmentation after the death of Taspar Qaghan in 581.[\\[8\\]](#reference-8) Illig subdued vassal tribes including the Xueyantuo and expanded influence across the Mongolian Plateau, extracting annual tribute of 100,000 bolts of silk from the nascent Tang dynasty while maintaining suzerainty over nomadic confederations from the Altai to the eastern steppes.[\\[9\\]](#reference-9) This period of dominance reflected Göktürk military prowess, with their cavalry forces numbering up to 100,000 warriors, enabling raids deep into Chinese territory and diplomatic leverage that compelled Tang Emperor Gaozu to seek alliance in 617 during the Sui collapse.[\\[8\\]](#reference-8)\n\nTensions escalated after the Xuanwu Gate Incident in 626, when Taizong (Li Shimin) ascended amid internal purges; Illig exploited Tang instability by advancing armies to the Weishui River near Chang'an, forcing a humiliating peace treaty that included increased tribute and territorial concessions.[\\[8\\]](#reference-8) However, Göktürk apogee unraveled due to environmental catastrophes—severe snowstorms and droughts from 627–628 decimating herds and sparking famines—compounded by elite jealousies and tribal defections to Tang agents.[\\[9\\]](#reference-9) Taizong capitalized on these fissures, dispatching General Li Jing with 100,000 troops in a multi-pronged winter offensive in 629, employing feigned retreats and rapid cavalry maneuvers to outflank Göktürk positions.[\\[9\\]](#reference-9)\n\nThe decisive clash occurred at Yinshan in early 630, where Tang forces shattered Illig's army at Tieshan, prompting his flight; Li Jing pursued and captured the qaghan near Dingxiang on March 27, 630, along with his son and 15,000 elites, effectively dismantling the khaganate's core structure.[\\[8\\]](#reference-8)[\\[9\\]](#reference-9) Tang incorporated surviving Ashina clans as puppets, installing Ashina Jiesheshuai as a nominal qaghan under the Jimi tributary system, while Xueyantuo tribes filled the power vacuum north of the Gobi, setting the stage for further Tang interventions.[\\[8\\]](#reference-8) These conflicts, chronicled in Tang annals like the Jiu Tangshu, underscored Göktürk overextension against a resurgent agrarian empire leveraging superior logistics and intelligence.[\\[9\\]](#reference-9)\n\n## Collapse of the First Khaganate\n\nThe unified Göktürk Khaganate began to fracture in the late 6th century due to dynastic conflicts and succession disputes within the Ashina clan, exacerbated by economic strains from prolonged wars and harsh climatic conditions. Following the death of Taspar Khagan in 581, rival claimants including his son Apa Khagan and uncle Tardu Khagan engaged in civil strife, weakening central authority and prompting tribal defections.[\\[6\\]](#reference-6) These internal divisions culminated in the khaganate's effective collapse by 603, splitting into the semi-independent Eastern Turkic Khaganate under Yami lineage rulers and the Western Turkic Khaganate under Tardu lineage rulers, with the former controlling territories east of the Altai Mountains.[\\[8\\]](#reference-8)\n\nThe Eastern Khaganate, initially stabilized under Chuluo Khagan (r. 617–620) and then Illig Khagan (r. 620–630), faced renewed instability from 620 onward, including rebellions by subordinate tribes like the Xueyantuo and severe snowstorms in 627–628 that decimated livestock and provoked mass discontent. Illig's harsh exactions and favoritism toward certain allies alienated key supporters, while Tang Dynasty envoys exploited these fissures by forging alliances with disaffected Turkic leaders such as the Tiele tribes.[\\[10\\]](#reference-10) In 627, Emperor Taizong of Tang authorized preemptive strikes, mobilizing forces under generals Li Jing and Li Shiji to probe northern borders.[\\[8\\]](#reference-8)\n\nThe decisive Tang campaign unfolded in late 629 to spring 630, with Li Jing's army of approximately 100,000, augmented by Turkic auxiliaries, advancing through the Yin Mountains to surprise Illig's encampment at Niehpanbo (near modern Baotou, Inner Mongolia) on March 17, 630. Illig Khagan fled but was captured shortly after, along with his son and key regalia including the sacred wolf standard and heavenly drum, symbols of Göktürk legitimacy; over 100,000 Turkic households surrendered, marking the Eastern Khaganate's subjugation as Tang protectorates.[\\[10\\]](#reference-10) [\\[8\\]](#reference-8) Many Eastern Turks were resettled within Tang borders, contributing to military forces but diluting nomadic cohesion, while remnants fled westward, presaging migrations that influenced later Turkic polities.[\\[6\\]](#reference-6)\n","century-7",{"title":431,"date":431,"markdown":432,"id":433},"8th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`704`| Umayyad governor Qutayba ibn Muslim invades Transoxiana.|\n|`710`| Second Turkic Khaganate inflicted a crushing defeat on the Kyrgyz Khaganate. Barsbek, Khagan of the Kyrgyz, fell in battle, and his descendants were to remain vassals of the Göktürks for several generations.|\n|`711`| in the Battle of Bolchu, Turkic army defeats Turgesh.|\n|`713`| Turco-Arab wars in Transoxiana. Arab victory leads to shift of power in Turkestan from Turkic Khaganate to their Turgesh vassals again.|\n|`716`| First treaty with known terms between Byzantine Emperor Theodosios III and Danube Bulgaria Khan Tervel delineating borders, fixing the size of Byzantine annual tribute to the Khan at 30 lb. of gold, exchange of prisoners, return of refugees, and unimpeded trade between the two countries[\\[8\\]](#reference-8)|\n|`716 (?)`| Qapaghan Qaghan was killed in his campaign against Toquz Oghuz and his head was sent to Changan.[\\[9\\]](#reference-9) Kul Tigin carried out a coup d'état. They killed Qapaghan's son and brothers and made Bilge Qaghan a Kaghan.[\\[9\\]](#reference-9)|\n|`716`| The first written records in Old Turkic language. Bain Tsokto inscriptions of Tonyukuk. (These monuments have been erected by himself, a few years before his death.)|\n|`717`| Inel Qaghan gets overthrown by Kul Tigin. Bilge Kaghan ascends to the throne.|\n|`717`| Suluk becomes Turgesh Khaghan.|\n|`718`| A short period of stability in Turkic Empire. Bilge and his triumvirate (Kültiğin and Tonyukuk) suppress all revolts.|\n|`723`| Governor al-Harashi of Umayyad Arabs massacres Turks and Sogdian refugees for the second time in Khujand|\n|`724`| Turgesh Kaghan Suluk defeats superior Umayyad Arab armies by his hit and run tactics so called \"The Day of Thirst\" (Yawm al-'Atash)[\\[10\\]](#reference-10)|\n|`728`| Turgesh Qaghan Suluk defeats Umayyad Arab armies for the second time.|\n|`730 (?)`| Khazars defeat Umayyad Arab armies in southern Caucasus. But victorious Qaghan Barjik dies in the battle.|\n|`734`| Death of Bilge Khagan.|\n|`735`| Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments of Bilge Khagan and his brother Kül Tigin. (Bilge has already erected Kül Tigin's monument and Bilge's son erects Bilge's monument.) Together with Bain Tsokto monument of Tonyukuk, these monuments are called Orkhon monuments. (In 2004 the monuments are included in List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia)|\n|`737`| Umayyad Arabs defeat Khazars and capture Khazar capital Balanjar. Khazars soon after drive Arabs back. But the capital is shifted to Atil.|\n|`738`| Suluk is assassinated.|\n|`740`| Khazar khan Bulan embraces Judaism. But the subjects are free to choose their religion.|\n|`744`| Turkic subjects like Basmyl, Uyghur and Karluk who are not the members of Ashina clan stage a coup. End of Ashina clan. (except in Khazaria)|\n|`744`| First Uyghur khan Kutluk Bilge. Uyghurs replace Turkic Khaganate in the east and their vassal Karluks begin to conquer the former Onoq territory in the west.|\n|`747`| Second Uyghur khan Bayanchur Khan who begins the construction of a big capital city Ordu Baliq|\n|`750`| Arab empire Umayyad dynasty ends. Abbasid policy more tolerant to Turks.|\n|`751`| Arabs defeat Chinese in the Battle of Talas during which 20,000 Karluk mercenaries switch to the Arab side in the middle of the battle.|\n|`753`| Tariat inscriptions of Bayanchor Khan of Uyghurs. (probable date)|\n|`755`| After the battle of Talas civil war in China. Bayanchor supports Chinese emperor against rebellious general An Lushan.|\n|`756`| Peace treaty between Byzantine Emperor Constantine V and Danube Bulgaria Khan Kormisosh ending long period of military conflict[\\[11\\]](#reference-11)|\n|`765`| Third Uyghur khan Bogu embraces Manicheism.|\n|`766`| Karluks defeat Turgesh. Most of Turkestan (former Onak territory) under Karluk rule. But in the west of Lake Aral a loose confederation named Oghuz Yabgu State emerges.|\n|`789`| Ediz house replaces Yaglakar house in Uyghur Khaganate.|\n\n## Second Göktürk Khaganate\n\nThe Second Göktürk Khaganate was reestablished in 682 CE when Ilteriş Qaghan (r. 682–691), also known as Kutlug, a member of the Ashina clan, led a revolt against Tang dynasty overlords and captured the sacred center of Ötüken in Mongolia, uniting fragmented Turkic tribes including the remnants of the Oğuz, Basmıl, and other groups previously subjugated by Chinese forces.[\\[5\\]](#reference-5)[\\[11\\]](#reference-11) This revival followed decades of Tang protectorate control after the first khaganate's collapse, exploiting Chinese internal weaknesses during the Wu Zetian era to restore Ashina authority over the eastern steppes.[\\[12\\]](#reference-12) Ilteriş's campaigns focused on consolidating power eastward from the Yin Mountains, subduing local rivals and reasserting nomadic sovereignty without immediate large-scale western expansion.\n\nUnder Ilteriş's brother and successor, Qapaghan Qaghan (r. 691–716), the khaganate expanded aggressively, incorporating tribes such as the Bayırku, Toquz Oghuz, and Kyrgyz through military coercion and tribute extraction, while raiding Tang borders in 698 and 711 to secure resources and prestige.[\\[5\\]](#reference-5) Qapaghan's death during a 716 campaign against the Bayırku tribe triggered succession struggles, leading to the ascension of his nephew Bilge Qaghan (r. 716–734), supported by his brother Kul Tigin as military commander (shad). Bilge's reign marked the khaganate's peak, with victories over Tang forces in 717–718 that halted Chinese incursions and forced tribute payments by 720, alongside defenses against Kyrgyz and eastern threats; these feats are detailed in the Orkhon inscriptions, runic monuments erected in 732 for Kul Tigin and posthumously for Bilge in 735, emphasizing themes of tribal unity, anti-Chinese independence, and Tengrist legitimacy.[\\[11\\]](#reference-11)[\\[13\\]](#reference-13)\n\nPost-Bilge decline accelerated after Kul Tigin's death in 731 and Bilge's in 734, with unstable rulers like Yollïg Tengri Qaghan and Özmiş Khagan (r. 734–741) facing assassinations and revolts amid factional strife among subordinate tribes.[\\[14\\]](#reference-14) Tengri Qaghan (r. 741–744) was murdered by his own shad in 741, exacerbating chaos that invited external intervention; in 744, a coalition of Uyghurs under Kutlug Bilge Kagan, allied with Karluks and Basmıls, overthrew the Göktürks, capturing Ötüken, executing the last khagan, and establishing Uyghur dominance, thus terminating the Second Khaganate after 62 years.[\\[11\\]](#reference-11)[\\[14\\]](#reference-14) This fall stemmed from overreliance on coercive tribal alliances and failure to resolve internal power vacuums, as evidenced by Chinese annals and the Orkhon texts' warnings against disunity.[\\[13\\]](#reference-13)\n\n## Rise of the Uyghur Khaganate\n\nThe Uyghur Khaganate was established in 744 CE when the Uyghurs, a Turkic-speaking nomadic confederation primarily from the Toquz Oghuz tribal alliance, overthrew the weakening Second Göktürk Khaganate through a coordinated rebellion involving the Karluks and Basmyls.[\\[15\\]](#reference-15) This uprising capitalized on Göktürk internal strife and military overextension, with the rebels exploiting the khaganate's fragmented authority in the Mongolian steppes.[\\[15\\]](#reference-15)\n\nIn early 744, the Basmyls seized the Göktürk ceremonial capital of Ötüken and executed the reigning khagan Özmiş (also known as Wu-su-mi-shi), temporarily establishing their own short-lived khaganate.[\\[15\\]](#reference-15) The Uyghurs, led by Qutluγ Bilgä Köl Qaγan (Kutlug Bilge Kul Qaghan) of the Yaghlakar clan, then allied with the Karluks to decisively defeat the Basmyls later that year, securing Ötüken and eliminating remaining Göktürk resistance, including the execution of the last khagan Kulun Beg in 745, whose head was presented to the Tang court as a gesture of alliance.[\\[15\\]](#reference-15) Qutluγ Bilgä, proclaimed as the first khagan, adopted Göktürk administrative models while relocating the political center to the newly fortified city of Ordu-Baliq (Qara Balgasun) along the Orkhon River, marking a shift toward semi-sedentary governance with advanced urban planning and trade integration.[\\[15\\]](#reference-15)\n\nThe nascent khaganate quickly consolidated power by forging a tributary relationship with the Tang dynasty, receiving the honorific title of Huairen Khan from Emperor Xuanzong in recognition of Uyghur military support against steppe threats.[\\[15\\]](#reference-15) This alliance provided economic benefits through silk and horse trade, enabling the Uyghurs to expand influence over eastern Central Asia, subdue subordinate tribes, and establish a stable realm spanning the Selenga and Orkhon valleys, with an estimated population incorporating tens of thousands of nomadic warriors organized in decimal military units. By the late 740s, under Qutluγ Bilgä's successors like his son Bayanchur Qaghan, the khaganate had transitioned from rebellion to imperial structure, inheriting Göktürk prestige while innovating in diplomacy and craftsmanship to sustain dominance until the 9th century.[\\[15\\]](#reference-15)\n","century-8",{"title":435,"date":435,"markdown":436,"id":437},"9th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`815`| Thirty Years’ Peace Treaty of 815 was signed in Constantinople between the Bulgarian khan Omurtag and the Byzantine Emperor Leo V the Armenian about 30-years peace. |\n|`820`| Kyrgyz start war with Uyghurs. |\n|`821`| Uyghurs repulse Tibetans. |\n|`836`| The capital of the caliphate (Arabian empire) is moved from Baghdad to the new city of Samarra by Caliph Al-Mu'tasim because of unrest caused by Turkic slave soldiers (named Mameluk). (Mameluk practice has begun shortly after Battle of Talas) |\n|`840`| Kyrgyz (north) defeat Uyghurs. Re-establishment of the Kyrgyz Khaganate. Supported by Uyghur refugees, Karluks establish the state of Karakhanids in Transoxiana. |\n|`848`| Some Uyghur refugees establish a small state in Gansu, north China. |\n|`856`| A third group of Uyghur refugees establish another state in Turpan, present day Xinjiang, west China. |\n|`868`| Ahmad ibn Tulun, a Turkic mameluk general in Arab army founds Tulunid dynasty in Egypt. |\n|`881`| Three Khazar tribes collectively named Kabar diverge from the main body and move westwards together with the seven tribes of Magyars. |\n|`892`| Khazars force Pechenegs to west who in turn force Magyars to Hungary. |\n|`898`| Treaty of 898 between the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon and the Byzantine Emperor Leo Choerosphactus after a devastating unprovoked war on Bulgaria from two sides and final Bulgarian victory resumes Byzantine payment of annual tribute to Danube Bulgaria |\n\n## Uyghur Dominance and Decline\n\nThe Uyghur Khaganate reached the zenith of its influence in the early 9th century, controlling the eastern Eurasian steppes from the Orkhon Valley to the Altai Mountains and exerting economic leverage over the Tang dynasty through horse trade for silk and other goods.[\\[16\\]](#reference-16) This commerce, facilitated by Sogdian intermediaries, enriched the khagans, enabling urban development at the capital Ordu-Baliq (Karabalghasun), which featured palaces, temples, and irrigation systems supporting semi-sedentary agriculture alongside nomadic pastoralism.[\\[16\\]](#reference-16) Culturally, the Uyghurs advanced a distinct identity, officially adopting Manichaeism as state religion by the late 8th century and adapting the Sogdian script into the Old Uyghur alphabet for administrative, literary, and religious texts, including translations of Buddhist and Manichaean works.[\\[16\\]](#reference-16)\n\nDiplomatic ties with Tang China bolstered Uyghur power; envoys from the early 9th century often included Manichaean clerics who doubled as traders, securing favorable terms amid Tang internal strife following the An Lushan Rebellion.[\\[16\\]](#reference-16) However, by the 820s, signs of strain emerged, including succession disputes and overreliance on tribute extraction, which fueled discontent among tribal elites and Sogdian financiers integral to the economy.[\\[17\\]](#reference-17) Natural disasters, such as floods and famines in the 830s, exacerbated these tensions, weakening military cohesion and prompting internal revolts.[\\[18\\]](#reference-18)\n\nThe khaganate's collapse accelerated in 840 when internal rivalries culminated in betrayal: a disaffected Uyghur minister, Kulug Bagha, allied with the Yenisei Kyrgyz, inviting their invasion from the north with promises of support.[\\[18\\]](#reference-18) The Kyrgyz, numbering around 80,000–100,000 warriors and backed tacitly by Tang forces seeking to eliminate a troublesome ally, routed Uyghur armies and sacked Ordu-Baliq, killing the khagan (likely Qasar or his successor) and massacring much of the elite.[\\[17\\]](#reference-17)[\\[18\\]](#reference-18) This cataclysmic event, compounded by ongoing Kyrgyz-Tang campaigns through 848, dismantled the khaganate's core structure, scattering survivors: some integrated into Kyrgyz tribes, others fled west to establish the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom in Gansu by the 840s, while remnants formed the Qocho Kingdom in the Turfan Depression, preserving Uyghur cultural continuity amid fragmentation.[\\[17\\]](#reference-17)\n\n## Western Expansions: Karluks and Oghuz\n\nIn the wake of the Uyghur Khaganate's collapse in 840 CE to Kyrgyz invasions, the Karluks under Bilge Kül Qadir Khan, ruler from Isfijab (modern Saryjuz), declared independence and consolidated power westward across the Semirechye (Zhetysu) and into Ferghana, absorbing fragmented Uyghur territories and tribal allies like the Chigils and Yagmas.[\\[19\\]](#reference-19) This surge displaced weaker groups and positioned Karluk confederations to raid Transoxianan oases, fostering early tensions with the rising Samanid dynasty, whose 839 CE incursion captured Sayram but failed to halt Karluk resurgence.[\\[19\\]](#reference-19) By the late 9th century, western Karluk branches had integrated Sogdian trade networks, enhancing their military capacity through captured artisans and levies numbering in the tens of thousands, as inferred from Arab chroniclers' accounts of steppe incursions.\n\nConcurrently, Oghuz tribes of the nascent Yabgu State pursued aggressive western thrusts from the Aral Sea fringes, allying with Karluks and Kimaks in the early 9th century to rout Pecheneg and Kangar confederations along the Syr Darya, securing dominance over its middle and lower reaches by circa 830 CE. These campaigns, driven by resource competition and Kyrgyz pressures eastward, displaced upward of 200,000 Pechenegs northwest toward the Ural River and Pontic steppes, enabling Oghuz encampments to span from the Caspian gates to the Amu Darya fringes.[\\[20\\]](#reference-20) Oghuz forces, organized in decimal tribal units under yabgus, exploited the vacuum to extract tribute from urban centers like Jend, laying groundwork for sustained pastoral dominance in the Dasht-i Qipchaq precursor zones.\n","century-9",{"title":439,"date":439,"markdown":440,"id":441},"10th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`914`| Treaty of 914 was a peace treaty concluded between Pechenegs and a prince of Rus principality Igor.|\n|`924`| Mongols of Khitan drive Kyrgyz out of Mongolia. Some Kyrgyz return to Yenisei region and some flee to present-day Kyrgyzstan.|\n|`932`| Saltuk Buğra Khan of Karakhanids convert to Islam, making him the first Turkic monarch to do so.|\n|`940`| Byzantine-Kievan Rus' alliance against Khazars. Khazar Khanate loses Crimea.|\n|`941`| Gansu state (Sari Uyghurs) becomes vassal of China.|\n|`960`| Khazar Correspondence between Hasdai ibn Shaprut (of Córdoba) and Khagan Joseph of Khazars.|\n|`963`| Alp Tigin, a Turkic general, establishes Ghaznavids as a vassal state of Samanids|\n|`969`| Rus capture Khazar capital Atil.|\n|`977`| Under Sebük Tekin Ghaznavids become a Muslim sultanate (empire).|\n|`985`| A big Turkic tribe (Kinik) under the leadership of Seljuk migrates from Khazar (Oguz?) territory to suburbs of the city Jend (which is now in South Kazakhstan).|\n|`999`| Dissolution of Oguz confederation by Kipchaks.|\n\n## Karakhanid Khanate and Early Islamization\n\nThe Karakhanid Khanate originated from the Karluk Turkic tribal confederation in the region of Semirechye (modern-day southeastern Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan), coalescing in the mid-9th century after the Karluks contributed to the downfall of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 CE.[\\[21\\]](#reference-21) By the early 10th century, the confederation had formalized under dual leadership structures typical of Turkic polities, with an eastern khagan in Balasagun and a western ilig in Kashgar, reflecting a division between nomadic and semi-sedentary elements.[\\[22\\]](#reference-22) The early rulers, such as Bilge Kül Qadir Khan (r. circa 920–940), maintained traditional Turkic shamanistic practices while engaging in alliances and conflicts with neighboring powers like the Samanids in Transoxiana. This period laid the groundwork for the khanate's expansion, with Karluk horsemen leveraging their military prowess in raids and as mercenaries for Muslim states, facilitating initial cultural exchanges.[\\[23\\]](#reference-23)\n\nA turning point in the khanate's history occurred with the conversion of Satuq Bughra Khan (r. 920–955), who adopted Islam around 934 CE under the influence of a Sufi missionary named Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi and exposure to Muslim traders along the Silk Road.[\\[24\\]](#reference-24) This marked the first large-scale Islamization of a Turkic nomadic ruling elite, distinguishing the Karakhanids from earlier partial conversions among urbanized groups like the Volga Bulgars.[\\[25\\]](#reference-25) Satuq's baptism prompted the gradual conversion of his clan and followers, blending Islamic tenets with Turkic customs such as retaining khagan titles and yurt-based governance, rather than immediate wholesale adoption of sedentary Persian-Islamic models. By the 950s, under his successors like Musa Bughra Khan, Islam had become the state religion, with rulers taking Muslim names while promoting jihad against non-Muslim neighbors, which accelerated the faith's spread among Karluk tribes through military incentives and intermarriage.[\\[22\\]](#reference-22)\n\nThe early Islamization process was pragmatic and uneven, driven by economic ties to Muslim commerce networks and strategic alliances, rather than purely ideological fervor; for instance, Karakhanid forces served in Samanid armies against infidels, gaining prestige and captives who reinforced Islamic practices.[\\[26\\]](#reference-26) This era saw the emergence of Turkic-Islamic hybrid institutions, such as the first madrasas in Central Asia by the late 10th century, fostering literacy in Arabic and Persian among elites while preserving Orkhon Turkic script for administrative use.[\\[27\\]](#reference-27) By 999 CE, under Nasr ibn Ali, the khanate's conquest of Bukhara from the Samanids solidified its role as a vector for Islam's transmission to eastern Turkic groups, with an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 Karluks and allied tribes undergoing nominal conversion within decades, though full cultural assimilation lagged until the 11th century.[\\[21\\]](#reference-21)\n\n## Ghaznavid Empire and Oghuz Movements\n\nThe Ghaznavid dynasty, originating from Turkic mamluks of likely Karluk stock, was established in 977 CE by Sebük Tigin, a former slave who gained control of Ghazna after succeeding his father-in-law Alp-Tigin, a Samanid general.[\\[28\\]](#reference-28) Sebük Tigin expanded Ghaznavid influence through campaigns against local Hindu Shahi rulers in the Hindu Kush and consolidated power in eastern Khorasan, marking an early instance of Turkic military elites asserting autonomy from Persianate overlords like the Samanids.[\\[29\\]](#reference-29) By his death in 997 CE, the Ghaznavids had secured a base in modern-day Afghanistan, leveraging Turkic cavalry tactics to raid and govern diverse populations.[\\[23\\]](#reference-23)\n\nUnder Sebük Tigin's son, Mahmud (r. 998–1030 CE), the empire reached its zenith through aggressive expansions westward into Khorasan and Iran, defeating the Buyids at Rey in 1029 CE, and eastward via 17 documented raids into northern India between 1000 and 1027 CE.[\\[30\\]](#reference-30) These Indian campaigns targeted wealthy temples, such as the sack of Somnath in 1025 CE, yielding vast plunder estimated in contemporary accounts at millions of dirhams, which funded Ghaznavid patronage of Persian literature and architecture while spreading Sunni Islam among Turkic troops.[\\[31\\]](#reference-31) Mahmud's forces, predominantly Turkic ghulams (slave soldiers), subdued the Hindu Shahis by 1010 CE, annexing Punjab and establishing frontier forts, though the empire's overextension sowed seeds for later Seljuk incursions.[\\[32\\]](#reference-32)\n\nConcurrently, Oghuz Turkic tribes underwent significant westward migrations in the 10th century, driven by conflicts with Karluks, climatic pressures, and resource scarcity in the Jeti-su region, displacing Pechenegs toward the Black Sea steppes.[\\[33\\]](#reference-33) By the mid-10th century, Oghuz groups had coalesced around the lower Syr Darya, forming the Oghuz Yabgu state under leaders like the yabgu Seljuk, with populations exceeding 300,000 nomads practicing seasonal transhumance between northern pastures and riverine winter camps.[\\[20\\]](#reference-20) These movements facilitated Oghuz infiltration into Transoxiana, where they served as mercenaries for Samanids and clashed with Ghaznavids over border territories, presaging the 11th-century Seljuk westward push into Persia.[\\[34\\]](#reference-34) The Oghuz retained Tengrist elements amid partial Islamization, their tribal confederation emphasizing 24 Oghuz bey clans as per the Dede Korkut traditions, which structured their military and social organization during this migratory phase.[\\[35\\]](#reference-35)\n","century-10",{"title":443,"date":443,"markdown":444,"id":445},"11th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1016`| Khazar Kaganate dissolves under pressure from Rus and Kipchaks.|\n| `1037`| Rus defeat Pechenegs.|\n| `1038`| Seljuk's grandsons Tugrul and Chaghri conquer the historical city of Merv in present-day Turkmenistan and declare independence. Beginning of the Great Seljuk Empire.|\n| `1040`| Tugrul and Chagri of Seljuk Turks defeat a Ghaznavid army at the battle of Dandanaqan and begin to settle in eastern Persia.|\n| `1042`| Civil war in Karakhanid territory. East and west Karakhanids.|\n| `1048`| Ibrahim Yinal (Tugrul's uterine brother) of Seljuk Turks defeat a Byzantine-Georgian army at Battle of Pasinler (also called battle of Kapetrou). Turks in East Anatolia.|\n| `1050`| Pechenegs raid Byzantine territories.|\n| `1055`| After a series of victories Tughrul is declared sultan (of Great Seljuk Sultanate) by the caliph.|\n| `1065`| Uzes paid hommage to Byzantine Empire|\n| `1071`| Alp Arslan of Seljuk Turks defeat Romanos Diogenes of Byzantine in the battle of Manzikert.|\n| `1072`| Death of Alp Arslan. Malik Shah becomes the sultan.|\n| `1072`| Danishmend Gazi who is the hero of epic tales Danishmendname founds a principality around Sivas, central Anatolia (i.e., Asiatic side of present Turkey).|\n| `1072`| Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk was written by Mahmud al-Kashgari of Karakhanids to be presented to Abbasid Caliphate.|\n| `1077`| Süleyman I (a cousin of Melik Shah) founds a state in what is now west Turkey. Although a vassal of Great Seljuk Empire it soon becomes totally independent. (Seljuks of Rum, Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, Sultanate of Rum, Seljuks of Turkey, Seljuks of Anatolia, Sultanate of Iconium are among the many names used for this state)|\n| `1077`| Emergence of Khwarezm dynasty as a vassal of Great Seljuk Empire.|\n| `1081`| Tzachas of Smyrna founds a beylik (principality) in İzmir, Western Anatolia and emerges as the first sea power in Turkish history.|\n| `1085`| Tutush I, Malik Shah's brother founds a short lived principality in Syria.|\n| `1089`| Hungarians defeat the Kipchaks.|\n| `1091`| Kipchacks defeat the Pechenegs.|\n| `1093`| Kipchacks defeat Sviatopolk II of Kievan Rus' in the Battle of the Stugna River,|\n| `1096`| Kılıç Arslan I of Seljuks defeats People's Crusade.|\n| `1097`| During First Crusade Crusades defeat Seljuks at the Battle of Dorylaeum. Capital İznik captured by Crusades (New capital Konya)|\n\n## Seljuk Conquests and Empire Building\n\nThe Seljuk Turks, originating from Oghuz tribal confederations in Central Asia, initiated their major conquests under Tughril Beg and his brother Chaghri Beg after migrating westward into Khorasan amid pressures from the Karakhanids and Ghaznavids. The pivotal Battle of Dandanqan on May 23, 1040, saw approximately 16,000 Seljuk horsemen decisively defeat a Ghaznavid army of around 50,000 under Sultan Mas'ud I, exploiting the enemy's supply shortages and low morale through mobile archery tactics and feigned retreats.[\\[36\\]](#reference-36) This victory expelled the Ghaznavids from Khorasan, enabling Tughril to capture Nishapur in 1040 and establish it as a base, marking the transition from tribal raiding to systematic territorial control.[\\[36\\]](#reference-36)\n\nBy 1044, Tughril had consolidated eastern Persia, seizing cities like Merv, Herat, and Rayy, while neutralizing local Buyid emirs through alliances and force, thereby integrating Persian administrative traditions into Seljuk governance.[\\[37\\]](#reference-37) In 1055, Tughril's army of roughly 10,000-20,000 entered Baghdad unopposed, deposing the Buyid regents who had dominated the Abbasid caliph since 945 and securing caliphal investiture as sultan, which legitimized Seljuk rule over Sunni Muslim territories and positioned them as defenders against Shiite Buyid and Fatimid influences.[\\[37\\]](#reference-37) This conquest extended Seljuk influence into Iraq, with Tughril granting iqta land assignments to tribal warriors to sustain loyalty and revenue, laying the foundation for a decentralized yet sultanate-centered empire.\n\nAlp Arslan, succeeding Tughril in 1063, accelerated westward expansion, subduing Armenia and Georgia by 1064 and raiding Byzantine Syria, before the Battle of Manzikert on August 26, 1071, where his 20,000-25,000 mobile cavalry overwhelmed Emperor Romanus IV's larger but rigid force of up to 100,000 through encirclement and the capture of the emperor himself.[\\[38\\]](#reference-38) This rout fragmented Byzantine defenses in Anatolia, inviting Oghuz tribes to settle and raid unchecked, while Alp Arslan secured Syria and Palestine, extracting tribute from Fatimid Egypt. Under Malik Shah I (r. 1072-1092), the empire peaked with campaigns reaching Yemen and the Caucasus; a 1088 expedition of 50,000 under emir Porsuk reinforced Anatolian gains, and diplomatic marriages with local dynasties stabilized frontiers.[\\[39\\]](#reference-39)\n\nEmpire building emphasized institutionalization, with Persian vizier Nizam al-Mulk (d. 1092) reforming administration from 1063 by centralizing tax collection via the diwan, assigning military iqtas to prevent nomadic unrest, and founding Nizamiyya madrasas in Baghdad, Nishapur, and Isfahan to propagate Sunni orthodoxy and train bureaucrats.[\\[40\\]](#reference-40) These measures, detailed in Nizam's Siyasatnama, balanced Turkic military prowess with Persian fiscal expertise, enabling governance over diverse populations from Transoxiana to the Mediterranean, though underlying tribal rivalries foreshadowed later fragmentation.[\\[40\\]](#reference-40)\n\n## Pecheneg and Cuman Invasions of Europe\n\nThe Pechenegs, a confederation of Turkic nomadic tribes originating from the eastern steppes, began migrating westward in the 9th century, driven by conflicts with Oghuz groups and later intensified pressure from the Kipchaks (Cumans). By the early 10th century, they had established dominance north of the Black Sea and Danube, periodically raiding Byzantine territories in the Balkans. A major displacement occurred around 1030–1040 when Cuman incursions from the east forced large Pecheneg groups across the Danube into Bulgarian and Byzantine lands, initiating sustained invasions that destabilized the region's frontiers.[\\[41\\]](#reference-41)[\\[42\\]](#reference-42)\n\nIn 1046–1047, under chieftain Tirakh, Pechenegs launched a massive winter crossing of the frozen Danube, invading Thrace and northern Bulgaria, where they plundered settlements and clashed with imperial forces, marking one of the earliest large-scale breaches of Byzantine Balkan defenses. Subsequent raids in the 1050s–1060s, including alliances with Uzes (another Turkic group) in 1064, saw Pechenegs and allies penetrate deep into the empire, sacking cities like Philippopolis and contributing to internal Byzantine instability amid succession crises. By 1078, Pecheneg bands supported rebel general Nikephoros Botaneiates' march on Constantinople, further eroding imperial control over the Balkans.[\\[43\\]](#reference-43)[\\[44\\]](#reference-44)\n\nThe culminating Pecheneg offensive unfolded in 1087–1091, when tens of thousands, fleeing Cuman pursuit, flooded south across the Danube under leaders like Togortak and Maniamos, ravaging Wallachia, Bulgaria, and Thrace; they besieged Philippopolis and advanced toward Constantinople, prompting Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to recruit Norman and Cuman auxiliaries. The decisive Battle of Mount Levounion on April 29, 1091, resulted in a catastrophic Pecheneg defeat, with heavy casualties from imperial cataphracts and allied archers; survivors were either incorporated as foederati or sold into slavery, effectively ending Pecheneg military power in Europe. These invasions strained Byzantine resources, accelerated the militarization of the theme system, and facilitated Seljuk gains in Anatolia by diverting imperial attention westward.[\\[45\\]](#reference-45)\n\nThe Cumans (Kipchaks), another western Turkic nomadic federation, advanced into the Pontic steppe in the mid-11th century, supplanting the Pechenegs and initiating raids across Eastern Europe as far as the Carpathians and Kievan Rus'. Their mobility and composite bows enabled hit-and-run tactics, with early incursions into Rus' principalities recorded from 1054–1055, when they defeated Prince Vseslav of Polotsk near the Alta River, exploiting inter-princely feuds for tribute and slaves. By 1068, Cuman forces under khans like Boniak invaded Hungary, devastating the eastern plains during King Solomon's civil war, burning settlements and compelling Hungarian consolidation under Géza I.[\\[46\\]](#reference-46)[\\[47\\]](#reference-47)\n\nThroughout the 1070s–1090s, Cumans conducted over a dozen major raids into Kievan Rus', allying variably with princes like Oleg Sviatoslavich against rivals, as in the 1078–1096 campaigns that sacked Chernigov and Pereiaslav; these incursions fragmented Rus' unity and prompted defensive coalitions, such as the 1103 Dolobsk victory under Vladimir Monomakh. In the Balkans, Cumans exploited Pecheneg collapse, raiding Bulgaria in 1094–1096 alongside Byzantine campaigns and briefly allying with Alexios I against Pechenegs before turning to independent plundering. 12th-century activities included support for Hungarian kings against Byzantium, as in the 1120s–1140s, and intermittent thrusts into Serbia and Wallachia, though declining after Rus' counteroffensives like the 1111 Salnita River battle. Cuman pressures ultimately facilitated Mongol dominance post-1220s, with remnants fleeing to Hungary and Bulgaria, where they integrated as cavalry elites.[\\[42\\]](#reference-42)[\\[44\\]](#reference-44)\n","century-11",{"title":447,"date":447,"markdown":448,"id":449},"12th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1101`| Kılıç Arslan I of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm defeats Stephen of Blois and Hugh of Vermandois, of the second wave of First Crusades.|\n|`1104`| Tuğtekin, atabeg of Damascus founds a short lived principality in Syria. First example of a series of Seljukid atabeg dynasties.|\n|`1121`| A Seljuq army led by the Artuqid Ilghazi of Mardin is defeated by the Georgians near Tiflis.|\n|`1128`| Zangi, atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo founds Zengid dynasty.|\n|`1141`| Mongols of Khitan defeat Great Seljuk Sultan Sanjar in the Battle of Qatwan.|\n|`1146`| Ildeniz, atabeg of Azerbaijan founds a dynasty, being the first independent Turkic dynasty of Azerbaijan.|\n|`1147`| During Second Crusade, Mesud I of Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm defeats Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III in the second battle of Dorylaeum and French king Louis VII at battle of Laodicea.|\n|`1153`| Great Seljuk sultan Sanjar is defeated by his Oguz vassals.|\n|`1154`| Oghuz Turks destroy Library of Nishapur[\\[14\\]](#reference-14)|\n|`1176`| Kılıç Arslan II of Seljuks defeats Manuel I Komnenos of Byzantine Empire in the battle of Myriokephalon.|\n|`1178`| End of Danishmends. Their territory is annexed by Kılıç Arslan II.|\n|`1190`| German Holy Roman emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and a contingent of the Third Crusade defeat the Turks at the Battle of Konya (Iconium) in Southern Anatolia. He subsequently drowns whilst crossing the Göksu River, near Silifke.|\n\n## Seljuk Fragmentation and Sultanates\n\nThe death of Sultan Malik Shah I in November 1092, amid the assassination of his vizier Nizam al-Mulk earlier that year, precipitated a succession crisis that fragmented the Seljuk Empire into rival factions led by Malik Shah's sons and relatives.[\\[48\\]](#reference-48) Barkiyaruq, proclaimed sultan in 1094 at age twelve, struggled against uncles like Tutush I of Syria and brothers including Muhammad Tapar, resulting in a decade of intermittent civil wars that eroded central authority.[\\[48\\]](#reference-48) Muhammad I Tapar eventually prevailed, ruling as sultan from 1105 to 1118 and attempting to restore unity, but his death sparked further disputes, notably between his son Mahmud II and brother Ahmad Sanjar, who controlled the eastern provinces from 1097.[\\[49\\]](#reference-49)\n\nAhmad Sanjar's reign as de facto sovereign sultan from 1118 to 1157 saw initial stability in Khorasan and Transoxiana, but external defeats accelerated decline. His army's loss to the Qara Khitai at the Battle of Qatwan on September 9, 1141, compelled tribute payments and undermined prestige.[\\[49\\]](#reference-49) Internal pressures culminated in the 1153 Oghuz revolt, where nomadic Ghuzz tribes defeated and captured Sanjar near Merv, plundering cities like Merv and Nishapur while holding him prisoner until 1156.[\\[50\\]](#reference-50) Sanjar's death in 1157 left the eastern Seljuks without effective leadership, fostering the rise of atabegs and local powers such as the Khwarazmshahs.[\\[49\\]](#reference-49)\n\nIn Anatolia, the Sultanate of Rum, established by Suleiman ibn Qutalmish around 1077, achieved greater autonomy post-1092, transitioning from vassalage to an independent polity centered at Konya after Crusader pressures displaced it from Nicaea in 1097.[\\[51\\]](#reference-51) Under Masud I (r. 1116–1156), Rum consolidated against Danishmend and Byzantine rivals, while Kilij Arslan II (r. 1156–1192) expanded aggressively, culminating in the victory over Emperor Manuel I Komnenos at the Battle of Myriokephalon on September 17, 1176, which halted Byzantine reconquest efforts in Anatolia.[\\[51\\]](#reference-51) This battle solidified Rum's dominance over central and eastern Anatolia, fostering Turkic settlement and Persianate administration.\n\nWestern branches fragmented into atabeg principalities, where Seljuk-appointed military governors assumed hereditary rule. In Mosul and Aleppo, the Zengid dynasty under Imad al-Din Zengi (d. 1146) captured Edessa from Crusaders on December 24, 1144, establishing a semi-independent state that checked Latin advances until Nur al-Din Zengi's expansions in Syria.[\\[51\\]](#reference-51) Similarly, Artuqid atabegs controlled Diyarbakir from 1102, and in Fars and Kirman, Seljuk lines persisted until the Kirman branch fell to the Ghuzz in 1186. Nominally, the Great Seljuk title continued under Mahmud II (1118–1131) and successors like Muhammad II (1159–1176) and Tughril III (1176–1194), but real power devolved to regional sultans and emirs, setting the stage for Mongol incursions.[\\[49\\]](#reference-49)\n\n## Turkic Settlement in Anatolia\n\nThe 12th century marked a phase of consolidation for Turkic settlement in Anatolia under the Sultanate of Rum, where nomadic Turkmen tribes, initially drawn by opportunities for plunder and pasture after the 1071 Battle of Manzikert, began establishing more enduring footholds amid stabilizing Seljuk governance. Turkmen groups settled along the Byzantine frontiers, exploiting available grazing lands without centralized state-directed policies, leading to gradual demographic shifts through ongoing immigration and local intermarriages.[\\[51\\]](#reference-51)\n\nSultan Masʿud I (r. 1116–1156) played a pivotal role in reviving Seljuk authority following the setbacks of the First Crusade, which had briefly disrupted western expansions by capturing Nicaea in 1097. Masʿud repelled incursions from the Second Crusade, including victories over German and French forces in 1147 near Dorylaeum and Mount Cadmus, thereby securing central Anatolian territories like Iconium (modern Konya) as bases for further tribal influxes and defensive fortifications. These military successes enabled the allocation of iqtaʾ lands to Turkic warriors, encouraging semi-sedentary lifestyles among pastoralists in river valleys and plateaus.[\\[51\\]](#reference-51)[\\[52\\]](#reference-52)\n\nUnder Kilij Arslan II (r. 1156–1192), the sultanate expanded aggressively, absorbing rival principalities such as the Danishmends and countering Byzantine offensives. The Battle of Myriokephalon on September 17, 1176, saw Rum Seljuk forces ambush and decisively defeat Emperor Manuel I Komnenos's army in the mountains west of Iconium, shattering Byzantine ambitions to reclaim Anatolia and opening western regions to intensified Turkmen settlement. This victory, leveraging light cavalry tactics suited to the terrain, solidified Seljuk dominance over the peninsula's interior, fostering urban development in Konya and the proliferation of Turkic cultural institutions like madrasas.[\\[51\\]](#reference-51)[\\[53\\]](#reference-53)\n\nBy the late 12th century, Anatolia's landscape had transformed, with Turkic pastoralism supplanting Byzantine agrarian patterns in many areas, though full demographic Turkification remained a protracted process extending beyond this period. Surviving monuments and artifacts from mid-century onward attest to the growing permanence of Turkish-Muslim presence, underscoring the role of military security in enabling familial migrations and cultural assimilation.[\\[53\\]](#reference-53)[\\[51\\]](#reference-51)\n","century-12",{"title":451,"date":451,"markdown":452,"id":453},"13th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1202`| Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm defeat Saltukid principality and annex north eastern Anatolia.|\n|`1205`| After the disintegration of Great Seljuk Sultanate, Kharzem shahs declare independence and conquer most of former Seljuk territory.|\n|`1206`| Slave dynasty of Delhi established by Qutb ud-Din Aibak in India.|\n|`1209`| Turpan Uyghurs become vassals of the Mongols.|\n|`1209`| Birth of Nasreddin a satirical Sufi figure in Akşehir, Western Anatolia. His anecdotes and jokes, especially those involving Mongol overlords after 1243, are always very popular in all Turkic-speaking countries.|\n|`1211`| Mongolic Khitans end East Karakhanids.|\n|`1212`| Khwarezm shahs end West Karakhanids.|\n|`1220`| Alaaddin Keykubat I becomes the Seljuk Sultan of Rûm.|\n|`1220`| Mongols end Khwarezm Shāh.|\n|`1224`| The Qarlughids of Bamyan and Kurraman establish their kingdom.|\n|`1230`| Alaaddin Keykubat I of Seljuks defeats Jalal al-Din Mangburni in the Battle of Yassıçemen|\n|`1236`| Razia Sultana of Delhi Sultanate, the first female ruler in Islamic countries.|\n|`1239`| Revolt of Baba Ishak. A revolt of Turkmen (Oguz) and Khwarezm refugees who have recently arrived in Anatolia. (The revolt is bloodily suppressed. But the sultanate loses power.)|\n|`1241`| Mongols defeat Kipchaks.|\n|`1243`| Mongols defeat the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm in the battle of Kösedağ|\n|`1250`| Aybek, a member of a cast of Kıpchack soldiers establishes Mamluk dynasty in Egypt|\n|`1260`| Mameluk general (later sultan) Baybars defeats Ilkhanate leader Hulagu in Battle of Ayn Jalut.|\n|`1277`| Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey a semi independent bey (prince) in Anatolia (also a short term vizier of Seljuks) declares Turkish as the official language in his reign.|\n|`1293`| Another Kyrgyz uprising is defeated by the Mongols. Most Kyrgyz tribes migrate to present-day Kyrgyzstan.|\n|`1293`| Codex Cumanicus A Kipchak dictionary written for Latins.|\n|`1299`| Ottoman beylik was founded by Osman I|\n\n\n## Mongol Conquests of Turkic States\n\nThe Mongol conquests in the 13th century profoundly disrupted major Turkic polities, including the Khwarezmian Empire, Kipchak confederations, and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, leading to their subjugation or incorporation into the Mongol Empire. These campaigns, initiated under Genghis Khan and continued by his successors, exploited internal divisions and superior Mongol military tactics, resulting in widespread devastation and the integration of surviving Turkic elites into Mongol administrative structures.[\\[54\\]](#reference-54)\n\nThe invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire, a Turkic-ruled state spanning Central Asia and Persia, commenced in 1218 after the governor of Otrar executed Mongol merchants and envoys sent by Genghis Khan.[\\[54\\]](#reference-54) By 1220, Mongol forces under generals Jebe and Subutai had captured key cities including Samarkand and Bukhara, while Shah Muhammad II fled westward and died in exile; his son Jalal al-Din mounted resistance but was defeated by 1230, with remaining Khwarezmian territories conquered under Chormaghun.[\\[54\\]](#reference-54) This campaign marked the effective end of Khwarezmian independence, with an estimated massive loss of life and the destruction of urban centers, though archaeological evidence from sites like Otrar indicates some continuity rather than total annihilation.[\\[55\\]](#reference-55)\n\nIn the western steppes, Mongol forces under Batu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, targeted the Kipchak (Cuman) Turkic nomadic groups from 1236 onward as part of the broader western campaign.[\\[56\\]](#reference-56) By 1237, Batu had subdued Kipchak territories in southern Ukraine and Kazakhstan, integrating defeated Kipchak warriors into Mongol armies and establishing the Kipchak Khanate, later known as the Golden Horde, which ruled from the 1240s.[\\[56\\]](#reference-56) This conquest facilitated Mongol dominance over Eastern Europe and the Pontic-Caspian steppe, with Kipchak elites eventually Turkicizing the Horde's ruling class through intermarriage and cultural assimilation.[\\[56\\]](#reference-56)\n\nThe Seljuk Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia faced Mongol incursion culminating in the Battle of Köse Dağ on June 26, 1243, where Sultan Kaykhusraw II's army of approximately 80,000 was routed by 30,000 Mongols under Baiju Noyan.[\\[57\\]](#reference-57) Kaykhusraw II fled to Ankara as Mongols seized cities like Kayseri, Sivas, Erzincan, and Ankara, reducing the sultanate to vassal status with annual tribute demands including 12 million silver coins, 500 silk bolts, 4,500 sheep, and 500 camels.[\\[57\\]](#reference-57) This subjugation fragmented Seljuk authority, paving the way for its absorption into the Ilkhanate by 1308 and the eventual rise of successor Turkic states like the Ottomans.[\\[57\\]](#reference-57)\n\n## Emergence of Post-Mongol Turkic Polities\n\nThe Mongol invasion culminated in the decisive defeat of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm at the Battle of Köse Dağ on June 26, 1243, imposing Ilkhanate suzerainty and triggering the sultanate's rapid fragmentation into semi-autonomous domains controlled by local Turkic emirs and tribal leaders.[\\[58\\]](#reference-58)[\\[59\\]](#reference-59) This power vacuum, exacerbated by internal Seljuk strife following the death of Sultan Kaykhusraw II in 1246 and intermittent Mongol interventions, enabled Oghuz Turkic groups—displaced warriors, pastoral nomads, and ghazi frontier fighters—to establish hereditary principalities known as beyliks, primarily in western and central Anatolia. These entities operated under nominal Mongol oversight via tax-farmers (muqaddams) but increasingly asserted de facto independence by the 1270s, leveraging the Ilkhanate's preoccupation with Persian affairs and internal succession crises.[\\[60\\]](#reference-60)\n\nAmong the earliest and most prominent was the Karaman Beylik, founded circa 1256 by Nure Sofi (or Karaman, a chieftain of the Afshar or Bayat Oghuz tribe) near Larende (modern Karaman) in the Taurus foothills, initially as a nomadic warband resisting Seljuk and Mongol authorities.[\\[61\\]](#reference-61)[\\[62\\]](#reference-62) By the 1270s, under leaders like Mehmet Bey, it expanded through raids on weakening Seljuk territories, controlling key routes and fortresses while promoting Turkish as an administrative language in defiance of Persianate Seljuk norms. Other beyliks followed: the Eşrefoğulları in Beyşehir around 1277, deriving from Seljuk vizieral families; the Hamidoğulları in Antalya and Eğirdir by the 1280s; and the Germiyanoğulları in Kütahya, established late 13th century by Yakub Bey from frontier ghazi stock. These polities, numbering over a dozen by 1300, sustained themselves via pastoralism, tribute extraction, and holy war against Byzantine remnants, fostering a mosaic of rival Turkic dynasties that persisted until Ottoman consolidation.[\\[63\\]](#reference-63)\n\nFurther west, maritime-oriented beyliks like Aydınoğulları (emerged c. 1300 under Osman Bey near Birgi) and Saruhanoğulları capitalized on Aegean trade and piracy, blending Turkic nomadic traditions with coastal economies. In Egypt and Syria, the Bahri Mamluk Sultanate—established May 1250 by the Turkic slave-soldier Aybak after deposing the Ayyubids—represented another post-conquest Turkic polity, with its Kipchak Turkish elite repelling Mongol incursions, notably annihilating a 20,000-strong Ilkhanid force under Kitbuqa at Ain Jalut on September 3, 1260, thereby securing the Levant as a Turkic-Muslim bulwark.[\\[64\\]](#reference-64) This victory, leveraging superior cavalry tactics and alliances with local Crusader states, halted Hulagu Khan's westward push and affirmed Mamluk dominance until Circassian ascendancy in the 1380s.\n\nIn Central Asia, the Chagatai Khanate (apportioned 1227 to Genghis Khan's son Chagatai) underwent accelerating Turkicization by the late 13th century, as Mongol elites intermarried with Karluk and Kıpçak Turks, adopting Chagatai Turkish—a Karluk dialect—as the lingua franca for administration and poetry, while retaining Mongol imperial structures like the kurultai assemblies.[\\[65\\]](#reference-65) Rulers like Duwa Khan (r. 1282–1307) enforced Islamic conversion among elites post-1260s, blending Turco-Mongol nomadic governance with sedentary Timurid precursors in Transoxiana, setting the stage for fully Turkic successor entities by the 1340s.[\\[66\\]](#reference-66) These developments underscored the resilience of Turkic tribal networks amid Mongol overlay, transitioning from vassalage to hybrid polities by 1300.\n","century-13",{"title":455,"date":455,"markdown":456,"id":457},"14th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1320 – 1424`| Tughluk Dynasty in Delhi established and ruled most of the India.|\n|`1346`| The Ottomans entered Europe.|\n|`1361`| Conquest of Edirne by the Ottomans occurred.|\n|`1370`| The Salars are descended from Turkmen who migrated from Central Asia and settled in a Tibetan area of Qinghai under Ming Chinese rule. The Salar ethnicity formed and underwent ethnogenesis from a process of male Turkmen migrants from Central Asia marrying Amdo Tibetan women during the early Ming dynasty.[\\[15\\]](#reference-15)[\\[16\\]](#reference-16)[\\[17\\]](#reference-17)[\\[18\\]](#reference-18)|\n|`1370`| Timur's seizure of power, establishment of Timurid Empire.|\n|`1382`| Tokhtamysh leads the Golden Horde's Army and sets Moscow on fire.|\n|`1389`| Battle of Kosovo: Ottoman domination in the Balkans|\n|`1389 – 1403`| Reign of Bayezid|\n|`1398`| Timur's military expedition to India|\n","century-14",{"title":459,"date":459,"markdown":460,"id":461},"15th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1402`| Battle of Ankara between Timur and Bayezid I|\n|`1406`| Re-emergence of Akkoyunlu and Karakoyunlu people on the stage of history|\n|`1453`| Conquest of Istanbul by Mehmed the Conqueror|\n|`1453–1504`| The golden age of the Akkoyunlu state.|\n|`1405`| Timur's death|\n|`1405–1447`| Arrival of Shahruh in Herat|\n|`1447–1449`| Ulugh Beg|\n|`1465`| Establishment of the Kazakh Khanate|\n|`1430`| Crimean Khanate formed|\n|`1445`| Establishment of the Khanate of Kazan|\n|`1462–1505`| Astrakhan Khanate, Kazakh khanate created|\n|`1473`| Sultan Husayn Bayqara: Timurid Renaissance|\n","century-15",{"title":463,"date":463,"markdown":464,"id":465},"16th century","## Modern era (1500 AD – present)\n\n| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1502`| The Crimean Khanate's destruction of the Golden Horde state|\n|`1552`| Russia's annexation of the Kazan Khanate|\n|`1556`| The annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate by Russia|\n|`1557`| Russia's annexation of the Nogai Khanate|\n|`1571`| Crimean Khanate burns Moscow|\n|`1580–1598`| Russia's elimination of the Siberian Khanate|\n|`1500`| Muhammed Shaybani and Uzbeks in Transoxiana|\n|`1510`| The defeat of Muhammed Shaybani by Shah Ismail|\n|`1502`| Ismail's establishment of the Safavid dynasty in Iran|\n|`1514`| The Battle of Çaldıran, the settlement of the Ottomans in Eastern Anatolia|\n|`1517`| Battle of Ridaniya; Ottoman conquest of Egypt.|\n|`1517`| Ottoman domination in Hijaz|\n|`1534`| Ottomans taking Iraq from Safavids|\n|`1538`| Ottoman domination in Yemen|\n|`1551`| Ottoman rule reaching Qatar and Oman|\n|`1578`| Ottomans reaching the Caspian Sea|\n|`1590`| Ottoman conquest of the entire Caucasus and Western Iran|\n|`1526`| Establishment of the Mughal Empire|\n|`1516`| Establishment of Ottoman administration in Algeria|\n|`1516–1517`| The Ottomans' destruction of the Mamluk State, Ottoman domination in Egypt|\n|`1551`| Beginning of Ottoman rule in Libya|\n|`1557`| Establishment of the Abyssinian Province by the Ottomans|\n|`1574`| Beginning of Ottoman rule in Tunisia|\n|`1574`| The spread of Ottoman rule in Fezzan[\\[19\\]](#reference-19)|\n|`1576–1580`| Ottoman influence in Morocco|\n","century-16",{"title":467,"date":467,"markdown":468,"id":469},"17th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1600`| The defeat of the Siberian Khanate.|\n|`1606`| The Treaty of Zitvatorok, which symbolized the Ottoman Empire's peak|\n|`1683`| Siege of Vienna by the Ottomans.|\n|`1699`| Treaty of Karlowitz. The decline of the Ottomans.|\n|`1605`| Russian invasion of Yenisey|\n|`1615–1650`| The struggle of the Yenisei Kyrgyz people against the Russians|\n|`1620`| Russia's annexation of Yakut lands|\n|`1628`| Dolgan's domination by Russia|\n|`1628–1630`| Another Mongolian tribe, the Kalmyks, who were defeated by the Eastern Mongols, trampled on Kazakhstan and settled in the Volga region.|\n|`1634–1642`| Russia's suppression of the Yakut revolts|\n|`1639`| Russia's Reaching the Pacific Ocean|\n|`1680`| Mongol capture East Turkestan, end of Chagatai Khanate|\n|`1628–1658`| Shah Jahan, emperor of India.|\n|`1658–1707`| Aurangzeb, emperor of India.|\n","century-17",{"title":471,"date":471,"markdown":472,"id":473},"18th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1773–1775`| Pugachev War in Russia (Tatar uprising)|\n|`1783`| Annexation of Crimea by the Russians.|\n|`1718–1730`| Tulip Era of the Ottomans.|\n|`1736–1747`| Nader Shah of Turkoman origin established Afsharid Empire, owning the identity of Turkic Afshar tribes.|\n|`1794`| Qajar dynasty founded in Iran by a Turk.|\n|`1709`| Establishment of Kokand Khanate|\n|`1709–1718`| The Dzungarian-Kazakh Khanate Conflict|\n|`1718`| The division of the Kazakh Khanate into three kingdoms.|\n|`1721`| Russia's annexation of Khakassia|\n|`1731`| The minor part of the Kazakh Khanate came under Russian protection.|\n|`1740–1747`| Iranian domination in the Khiva Khanate|\n|`1755–1759`| The Manchu Dynasty, which took over the administration in China, seized East Turkestan which was in the hands of the Dzungarians|\n|`1755`| Tuva under the rule of the Manchu Dynasty, which seized power in China|\n|`1756`| Russia's capture of the Altai region|\n|`1785`| Manghud's takeover of the Bukhara Khanate|\n|`1705`| The Huseyni Dynasty appointed in Tunisia, which was a part of the Ottoman Empire|\n|`1798–1799`| Egypt expedition of Napoleon Bonaparte. Turkish-French conflicts.|\n","century-18",{"title":475,"date":475,"markdown":476,"id":477},"19th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1829`| Greece's independence|\n|`1878`| Treaty of Berlin, Serbia, Montenegro, Romania gaining their independence, Bulgaria gaining autonomy|\n|`1881`| Greek annexation of Thessaly|\n|`1885`| Bulgaria's annexation of Eastern Rumelia|\n|`1813`| Russia's annexation of Dagestan and Azerbaijan|\n|`1827`| Russian domination of the Balkars|\n|`1828`| Karachays' entry into Russian domination|\n|`1828`| Russia's annexation of Yerevan and Nakhchivan|\n|`1829`| Russia's annexation of Akhaltsikhe|\n|`1839`| Tanzimat Edict in the Ottoman Empire|\n|`1876`| The first constitution of the Ottoman Empire legislated.|\n|`1820`| The Great Juz of the Kazakh Khanate came under the rule of the Kokand Khanate|\n|`1847`| The lands of the Kazakh Khanate completely passed into the hands of Russia|\n|`1851–1854`| The defeat of the Khiva Khanate to the Russians|\n|`1864`| The start of Russian expeditions to West Turkestan|\n|`1865`| Establishment of Kashgar Khanate in East Turkestan|\n|`1866`| The Emirate of Bukhara came under Russian rule|\n|`1868`| The Kokand Khanate came under Russian rule|\n|`1871`| Russian occupation of Lake Balkhash|\n|`1873`| The Khiva Khanate came under Russian rule|\n|`1876`| Russia's annexation of the Khanate of Kokand|\n|`1877–1878`| China's elimination of the Khanate of Kashgar|\n|`1881–1884`| Russia's annexation of Turkmenistan|\n|`1805`| The Mughal State came under the auspices of the British who defeated the Maratha Confederation|\n|`1857`| The British overthrow the Mughal State|\n|`1807`| British abolish slave trade, Royal Navy patrol around Africa to intercept slave ships|\n|`1822`| Sudan's entry into Ottoman rule|\n|`1830–1842`| French invasion of Algeria|\n|`1831–1840`| Ottoman-Egyptian struggle, Egypt gaining autonomy|\n|`1869`| Opening of the Suez Canal|\n|`1881`| Second French invasion of Algeria|\n|`1882`| British invasion of Egypt|\n|`1885`| Italian invasion of Habesh|\n|`1885`| End of Turkish rule in Sudan|\n|`1888`| British invasion of Somalia, end of Turkish presence in Horn of Africa|\n","century-19",{"title":479,"date":479,"markdown":480,"id":481},"20th century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`1905`| Expansion of Jadid reform movements, which had begun in the nineteenth century.|\n|`1910–1920`| Alash Horda Government of Kazakhs and Kyrgyz|\n|`1911-1912`| Invasion of Tripoli by Italy|\n|`1912`| Balkan wars|\n|`1915–1916`| Gallipoli campaign|\n|`1917`| Turkistan's declaration of autonomy|\n|`1918`| The Armistice of Mudros was signed between Turkey and the Allied Powers.|\n|`1918`| Establishment of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.|\n|`1919`|1922: The Turkish War of Independence took place.|\n|`1919`|1928: Basmachi Uprising against the Soviet Union|\n|`1921`|1944: Tuvan People's Republic|\n|`1922`| Turkish victory over Greeks|\n|`1923`| Turkey officially became a State and a Republic after the victorious Turkish War of Independence|\n|`1932–1934`| East Turkestan Islamic Republic of Uyghurs in China|\n|`1938`| Ataturk's death|\n|`1944`| Short-lived East Turkestan Republic established with the help of the Russian army|\n|`1945`| formation of the autonomous government of South Azerbaijan by Pishevari \"Tabriz, Ardebil, Urmia, Zanjan, Qəzvin\"|\n|`1946`| The killing of the Turkic nation of South Azerbaijan by the Pahlavi regime|\n|`1974`| Turkish invasion of Cyprus|\n|`1983`| The declaration of independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|\n|`1988`| The beginning of the Azeri-Armenian conflict|\n|`1990`| Soviet invasion of Baku|\n|`1991`| The collapse of the USSR and themergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States|\n|`1992`| Admission of the CIS Turkic republics to the UN: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan|\n|`1992`| The first Turkic Speaking Countries Summit was held in Ankara on 30 October 1992.|\n|`1993`| The occupation of a region of Azerbaijan by the Armenians.|\n|`1993`| In 1993, the Turkish Culture and Arts Joint Administration was established in Almaty, which provides cooperation in the fields of culture and arts of Turkic Speaking Countries.|\n|`1993`| The first Turkic Congress, which was a cultural, economic and political forum and was attended by all Turkic states and communities and related communities.|\n","century-20",{"title":483,"date":483,"markdown":484,"id":485},"21st century","| Year    | Event   |\n|---------|-----------|\n|`2005`|Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan.|\n|`2005`|Kazakh leader Nursultan Nazarbayev's proposal to establish a common market in Central Asia in his address to the nation.|\n|`2005`|Andijan massacre in Uzbekistan|\n|`2006`|Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline put into service.|\n|`2007`|The first meeting of riparian countries to determine the status of the Caspian Sea.|\n|`2008`|Establishment of the Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic Speaking Countries between Turkey, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan on 21 November 2008.|\n|`2009`|Signing of the Nakhchivan Agreement establishing the Turkic Council, renamed the Organization of Turkic States in 2021.|\n|`2013`|Gezi Park protests|\n|`2016`|Turkish coup attempt by Peace at Home Council|\n","century-21",{"title":487,"date":487,"markdown":488,"id":489},"Historiographical Debates","\n## Genetic and Archaeological Evidence on Migrations\n\nGenetic analyses of Y-chromosome and autosomal DNA from modern Turkic-speaking populations identify a shared \"Inner Asian\" genetic component originating from the Altai-Sayan region near southern Siberia and Mongolia, supporting an eastern steppe homeland for proto-Turkic groups around the 1st millennium CE.[\\[67\\]](#reference-67) This component, characterized by excess identity-by-descent sharing among western and eastern Turkic groups, dates to medieval expansions and reflects migrations of nomadic carriers of Turkic languages westward into the Volga region and southward toward Anatolia between the 6th and 13th centuries.[\\[67\\]](#reference-67) Haplogroup distributions show heterogeneity, with East Eurasian lineages like C2 (up to 20-30% in some Siberian Turkic groups) and Q indicating steppe nomadic ancestry, admixed with West Eurasian R1a and R1b from interactions with Indo-Iranian and local populations during early khaganate expansions.[\\[68\\]](#reference-68)\n\nIn Anatolia, following Oghuz Turkic migrations after 1071 CE, admixture models estimate a Central Asian Turkic contribution of 9-15% in modern Turkish genomes, with the remainder deriving from pre-existing Bronze Age and Byzantine Anatolian ancestries.[\\[67\\]](#reference-67) [\\[69\\]](#reference-69) Ancient DNA from sites like Çapalıbağ (1300-1650 CE) confirms this pattern, positioning medieval samples intermediate between Byzantine and medieval Central Asian profiles, with no evidence of wholesale population replacement but rather incremental male-biased gene flow consistent with elite dominance.[\\[70\\]](#reference-70) Predominant Y-haplogroups in contemporary Turks—J2a (18%), R1b (15%), and R1a (12%)—align more closely with West Asian and European lineages than East Asian ones, underscoring limited demographic impact from 11th-13th century influxes despite linguistic Turkification.[\\[69\\]](#reference-69)\n\nArchaeological correlates of these migrations include tamga symbols—linear tribal emblems etched on petroglyphs, stelae, and metalwork—appearing in Altai and Semirechye from the Göktürk era (6th-8th centuries CE), persisting into westward routes and signifying clan identity amid khaganate expansions.[\\[71\\]](#reference-71) Kurgan mound burials with horse sacrifices, composite bows, and iron stirrups mark nomadic encampments in Transoxiana and the Pontic steppe by the 7th-10th centuries, aligning with Bulgar, Pecheneg, and Cuman movements, though such practices overlap with prior Scytho-Sarmatian traditions.[\\[72\\]](#reference-72) Balbal anthropomorphic stones, erected as grave guardians from the 6th century onward, appear in Central Asian necropolises and sporadically in Anatolian Seljuk contexts, indicating cultural transmission.[\\[73\\]](#reference-73) However, in western termini like Anatolia, continuity in urban settlements and ceramics suggests migrations involved small warrior elites rather than large settler waves, with Steppe markers overlaying indigenous substrates. Limited ancient DNA from core Turkic periods (e.g., Göktürk burials) constrains direct linkages, as material culture alone cannot unambiguously denote ethnicity without genetic corroboration.\n\n## Linguistic and Cultural Continuity Disputes\n\nScholars generally affirm the philological continuity of Turkic languages from the earliest attested forms in Old Turkic runic inscriptions of the 6th to 8th centuries CE, such as those from the Göktürk Khaganate, to medieval vernaculars like Karakhanid and Chagatai, evidenced by shared morphology, phonology, and core lexicon.[\\[74\\]](#reference-74) However, disputes persist regarding the internal classification and divergence timelines of the family, with Bayesian phylolinguistic models estimating a proto-Turkic origin around 2,000–2,500 years ago and subsequent branching into Oghuz, Kipchak, and Karluk groups by the 8th–10th centuries, challenging earlier views of a more uniform \"Common Turkic\" stage.[\\[75\\]](#reference-75) These debates highlight influences from substrate languages, such as Iranic or Mongolic, which introduced lexical borrowings and structural shifts, particularly in peripheral branches like Oghur (e.g., Bulgar and Chuvash), raising questions about the purity of descent versus areal convergence.[\\[76\\]](#reference-76)\n\nCultural continuity among Turkic groups during 500–1300 is marked by enduring nomadic pastoralism, tribal kinship structures, and Tengrist cosmology, which persisted despite Islamization from the 10th century onward in states like the Karakhanids and Seljuks, often syncretizing with Sufi practices and epic oral traditions.[\\[77\\]](#reference-77) Yet, historiographical disputes center on the fluidity of ethnic identity, as articulated by Peter Golden, who argues that medieval steppe confederations were bound more by shared economic adaptations to pastoralism and political alliances than by immutable linguistic or mythic ties, allowing for assimilation of non-Turkic elements like Iranic Alans into Kipchak or Cuman groups.[\\[78\\]](#reference-78) In regions like Anatolia and the Volga, elite Turkic migrations imposed language and governance but coexisted with substrate populations, leading some scholars to question the depth of cultural replacement versus superficial overlay, with evidence from toponyms and folklore suggesting hybridity rather than unbroken transmission.[\\[79\\]](#reference-79)\n\nThese disputes reflect broader tensions in sourcing: Turkic nationalist historiography, prevalent in post-Soviet contexts, emphasizes unbroken descent from ancient khaganates to foster pan-Turkic unity, often downplaying assimilative disruptions, while earlier Soviet-era analyses fragmented identities to counter irredentism, potentially understating linguistic filiation. Empirical resolution favors integrated evidence, where linguistic stability supports core continuity amid cultural adaptations driven by conquest and ecology, as seen in the resilience of motifs like the sky-god and heroic epics across Uighur, Oghuz, and Kipchak variants.[\\[80\\]](#reference-80)\n","historiography",{"title":491,"date":491,"markdown":492,"id":493},"References","\u003Cdiv class=\"break-all\">\n\n1. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-1\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.turkishculturalfoundation.org/education/files/brief-outline-of-turkish-history.pdf\n2. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-2\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9781000904215_A46375819/preview-9781000904215_A46375819.pdf\n3. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-3\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter_Golden/publication/281319978_An_Introduction_to_the_History_of_the_Turkic_Peoples/links/55e1bbf308ae2fac471f3432/An-Introduction-to-the-History-of-the-Turkic-Peoples.pdf\n4. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-4\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372422782_The_Turkic_Peoples_in_World_History\n5. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-5\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/AsiaEasternKhagans.htm\n6. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-6\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Gokturks.pdf\n7. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-7\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/osawa.html\n8. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-8\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://webofproceedings.org/proceedings_series/ESSP/CSTSS%202019/CSTSS110433.pdf\n9. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-9\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.academia.edu/32907924/The_Impact_of_General_Li_Jings_Military_Thought_on_the_Fall_of_the_Eastern_T%C3%BCrk_Qaghanate\n10. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-10\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-war/china-the-tang-600900/AE6F906AB720A59E69B248FB0BF3B802\n11.  \u003Cspan id=\"reference-11\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://silkroadresearch.blog/2018/10/08/turkic-khaganate/\n12. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-12\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%253A3636687/view\n13. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-13\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.sociostudies.org/upload/sociostudies.org/journal/seh/2019_2/005_Vasyutin%2520FIN.pdf\n14. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-14\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://phersu-atlas.com/chronology/polity6540.html\n15. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-15\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/uighurs.html\n16. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-16\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-53\n17. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-17\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://zh.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_IVa%2520silk%2520road_%2520the%2520uighurs%252C%2520the%2520kyrgyz%2520and%2520the%2520tangut.pdf\n18. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-18\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314840340_Kyrgyz_Khaganate\n19. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-19\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> 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https://www.mapsofindia.com/history/battles/mahmud-ghazni-invasions-of-india.html\n31. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-31\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://historypak.com/mahmoods-invasions/\n32. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-32\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://gnkc.ac.in/assets/pdf/NAAC/ppt/Invasion%2520of%2520Mahmud%2520Ghaznavi.pdf\n33. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-33\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03148-5\n34. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-34\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://humanitiesinstitute.org/__static/6822093b16fc9df8286fb746a3f8dc26/oghuz-history%282%29.pdf?dl=1\n35. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-35\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/knowledge-bank/states-oghuz-kimek-and-kipchak\n36. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-36\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Dandanqan\n37. 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https://www.thoughtco.com/what-was-the-golden-horde-195330\n57. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-57\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://worldhistoryedu.com/battle-of-kose-dag/\n58. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-58\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> http://www.turkishhan.org/history.htm\n59. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-59\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.sullacoins.com/post/anatolian-beyliks\n60. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-60\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.persee.fr/doc/anatv_1013-9559_2012_act_25_1_1230\n61. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-61\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://curate.nd.edu/articles/thesis/Nomadic_Warriors_on_the_Edge_of_the_World_Empire_The_Early_Karamanids_1225-1335_/24735525\n62. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-62\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.academia.edu/93494709/A_myht_about_the_emergence_of_the_Qaramanid_dynasty_as_reflected_in_the_Ottoman_sources\n63. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-63\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://research.sabanciuniv.edu/23808/1/Artan%2C_T%25C3%25BClay_-_The_Anatolian_Seljuks_and_the_Ottoman_Empire.pdf\n64. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-64\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-turkey/anatolia-under-the-mongols/73C5FC788C55900D12455E170F5535C8\n65. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-65\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Mizzou_Academy/World_History_A_B/08%253A_Central_Asia/8.08%253A_The_Khanate_of_Chagatai\n66. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-66\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Central_Asian_Topics/sub8_8b/entry-4509.html\n67. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-67\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4405460/\n68. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-68\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320552611_A_Comparative_Analysis_of_Chinese_Historical_Sources_and_Y-DNA_Studies_with_Regard_to_the_Early_and_Medieval_Turkic_Peoples\n69. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-69\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8433500/\n70. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-70\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Central-Asian-Turkic-admixture-in-Anatolia-A-Individuals-from-Capalibag-1300-to-1650_fig4_363157583\n71. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-71\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333975404_The_Tamga_Signs_of_the_Turkic_Nomads_in_the_Altai_and_Semirechye_Comparisons_and_Identifications\n72. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-72\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.academia.edu/1199116/Archaeological_Traces_of_Early_Turks_in_Transoxiana_An_Overview\n73. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-73\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.academia.edu/39955260/Rogozhinskiy_A_E_Cheremisin_D_V_The_Tamga_Signs_of_the_Turkic_Nomads_in_the_Altai_and_Semirechye_Comparisons_and_Identifications_2019\n74. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-74\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291210224_Historical_periodization_of_Turkic_languages\n75. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-75\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://academic.oup.com/jole/article/5/1/39/5736268\n76. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-76\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1475119.pdf\n77. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-77\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://journals.iium.edu.my/asiatic/index.php/ajell/article/download/3422/1208/5264\n78. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-78\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://rutgersaaup.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Golden-Ethnicity-in-Medieval-Turkic-Eurasia.pdf\n79. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-79\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003243809-2/turkic-peoples-peter-golden\n80. \u003Cspan id=\"reference-80\" style=\"scroll-margin-top: 8rem\">\u003C/span> https://journal.fi/store/article/view/69834/38558\n\n- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_history#Modern_era_(1500_AD_%E2%80%93_present)\n- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Turkic_peoples_(500%E2%80%931300)#13th_century\n- https://grokipedia.com/page/Timeline_of_the_Turkic_peoples_(500%E2%80%931300)#references\n\u003Cdiv/>\n\n\nEditorial correction sources: [Xiongnu](https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xiongnu/); [Savelyev and Jeong (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2020.18). Legacy bibliography entries are retained for traceability, not a claim that every assertion has been specialist-reviewed.","references","nXO73RTXAU6MnuBtMVv0K6WTOAyACYXNHcrT0R3T2EY",{"data":496,"body":497},{},{"type":498,"children":499},"root",[500],{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":503,"children":504},"element","p",{},[505],{"type":506,"value":407},"text",{"data":508,"body":509},{},{"type":498,"children":510},[511,518,523],{"type":501,"tag":512,"props":513,"children":515},"h3",{"id":514},"_209-bce-modu-and-the-xiongnu",[516],{"type":506,"value":517},"209 BCE: Modu and the Xiongnu",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":519,"children":520},{},[521],{"type":506,"value":522},"Modu (Maodun) became chanyu in 209 BCE and consolidated the Xiongnu confederation. Its ethnolinguistic composition remains disputed. Savelyev and Jeong (2020) discuss evidence compatible with Turkic-speaking components while emphasizing the limits of connecting populations, languages and later Huns. The confederation should therefore not be presented as a uniformly Turkic nation or the first securely attested Turkic state. A modern military commemoration dated to 209 BCE is not proof of continuous institutional descent.",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":524,"children":525},{},[526,535,537,544],{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":528,"children":532},"a",{"href":529,"rel":530},"https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xiongnu/",[531],"nofollow",[533],{"type":506,"value":534},"Encyclopaedia Iranica: Xiongnu",{"type":506,"value":536},"; ",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":538,"children":541},{"href":539,"rel":540},"https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2020.18",[531],[542],{"type":506,"value":543},"Savelyev and Jeong, 2020",{"type":506,"value":545},".",{"data":547,"body":548},{},{"type":498,"children":549},[550],{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":551,"children":552},{},[553,555,561],{"type":506,"value":554},"Hun movements in the later fourth century reshaped the Pontic steppe and its relations with the Roman world. The Huns’ linguistic composition and relationship to the Xiongnu remain debated; this is context for later Turkic history, not proof of a single continuous people. ",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":556,"children":558},{"href":539,"rel":557},[531],[559],{"type":506,"value":560},"Savelyev and Jeong (2020)",{"type":506,"value":545},{"data":563,"body":564},{},{"type":498,"children":565},[566],{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":567,"children":568},{},[569,571,578],{"type":506,"value":570},"Sabir and early Bulgar groupings appear in accounts of fifth-century steppe movements. Their changing alliances and disputed locations should not be reduced to a precise map of modern ethnic groups. ",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":572,"children":575},{"href":573,"rel":574},"https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khazars/",[531],[576],{"type":506,"value":577},"Encyclopaedia Iranica: Khazars",{"type":506,"value":545},{"data":580,"body":581},{},{"type":498,"children":582},[583,590,874,880,897,908],{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":585,"children":587},"h2",{"id":586},"middle-agesturks",[588],{"type":506,"value":589},"Middle Ages/Turks",{"type":501,"tag":591,"props":592,"children":593},"table",{},[594,613],{"type":501,"tag":595,"props":596,"children":597},"thead",{},[598],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":600,"children":601},"tr",{},[602,608],{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":604,"children":605},"th",{},[606],{"type":506,"value":607},"Year",{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":609,"children":610},{},[611],{"type":506,"value":612},"Event",{"type":501,"tag":614,"props":615,"children":616},"tbody",{},[617,636,653,669,686,703,720,737,773,790,806,823,840,857],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":618,"children":619},{},[620,631],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":622,"children":623},"td",{},[624],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":626,"children":628},"code",{"className":627},[],[629],{"type":506,"value":630},"545",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":632,"children":633},{},[634],{"type":506,"value":635},"A Western Wei envoy to the Altai Mountains. First mention of Bumin, as the leader of the Ashina clan (the leaders of Turks).",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":637,"children":638},{},[639,648],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":640,"children":641},{},[642],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":643,"children":645},{"className":644},[],[646],{"type":506,"value":647},"552",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":649,"children":650},{},[651],{"type":506,"value":652},"Bumin declares independence of the Turks around Altai mountains, conquers Ötüken in Mongolian Plateau and takes the title khagan (qaghan). His empire is known as Turkic Khaganate or more popularly Göktürk (Celestial Turk).",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":654,"children":655},{},[656,664],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":657,"children":658},{},[659],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":660,"children":662},{"className":661},[],[663],{"type":506,"value":647},{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":665,"children":666},{},[667],{"type":506,"value":668},"Shortly after sending his brother Istemi to the Western Regions as his yabgu (vassal), Bumin Qaghan dies. His elder son Issık (Keluo) becomes the khagan.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":670,"children":671},{},[672,681],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":673,"children":674},{},[675],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":676,"children":678},{"className":677},[],[679],{"type":506,"value":680},"554",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":682,"children":683},{},[684],{"type":506,"value":685},"Bumin's second son Muqan Qaghan becomes the khagan. After a series of successful campaigns the Göktürks begin to control the silk road.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":687,"children":688},{},[689,698],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":690,"children":691},{},[692],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":693,"children":695},{"className":694},[],[696],{"type":506,"value":697},"568",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":699,"children":700},{},[701],{"type":506,"value":702},"An alliance with the Byzantine Empire under Justin II is formed after a delegation of the Turks led by Sogdian Maniah arrive in Constantinople to trade silk with the Byzantines.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":704,"children":705},{},[706,715],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":707,"children":708},{},[709],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":710,"children":712},{"className":711},[],[713],{"type":506,"value":714},"572",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":716,"children":717},{},[718],{"type":506,"value":719},"Taspar Qaghan, the youngest son of Bumin becomes the khagan after the death of his brother.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":721,"children":722},{},[723,732],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":724,"children":725},{},[726],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":727,"children":729},{"className":728},[],[730],{"type":506,"value":731},"576",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":733,"children":734},{},[735],{"type":506,"value":736},"The alliance with the Byzantines ceases after the Byzantines (contrary to their agreement) accept a treaty with Avars, enemies of the Göktürks. The Göktürks seize a Byzantine stronghold in the Crimea.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":738,"children":739},{},[740,749],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":741,"children":742},{},[743],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":744,"children":746},{"className":745},[],[747],{"type":506,"value":748},"580",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":750,"children":751},{},[752,754,759,761,767],{"type":506,"value":753},"Agathias included within Hunnic circle these tribes: the Vurugunds,",{"type":501,"tag":755,"props":756,"children":757},"span",{},[758],{"type":506,"value":527},{"type":506,"value":760}," Ultizurs, as well as the Turkic tribes Cotrigurs and Utigurs.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":762,"children":764},{"href":763},"#reference-2",[765],{"type":506,"value":766},"[2]",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":768,"children":770},{"href":769},"#reference-3",[771],{"type":506,"value":772},"[3]",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":774,"children":775},{},[776,785],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":777,"children":778},{},[779],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":780,"children":782},{"className":781},[],[783],{"type":506,"value":784},"581",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":786,"children":787},{},[788],{"type":506,"value":789},"Tardush, the second yabgu in the west, lay siege to Tauric Chersonesus in Crimea.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":791,"children":792},{},[793,801],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":794,"children":795},{},[796],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":797,"children":799},{"className":798},[],[800],{"type":506,"value":784},{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":802,"children":803},{},[804],{"type":506,"value":805},"Two rival states in China begin to pay annual tribute to the Turkic Khaganate.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":807,"children":808},{},[809,818],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":810,"children":811},{},[812],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":813,"children":815},{"className":814},[],[816],{"type":506,"value":817},"584",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":819,"children":820},{},[821],{"type":506,"value":822},"Taspar Qaghan dies, civil war breaks out. (Ishbara Qaghan vs. Apa Qaghan) Tardush interferes.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":824,"children":825},{},[826,835],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":827,"children":828},{},[829],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":830,"children":832},{"className":831},[],[833],{"type":506,"value":834},"587",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":836,"children":837},{},[838],{"type":506,"value":839},"Tardush de facto ruler of the west. Period of dual khaganates. From now on the west khaganate is also called Onok.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":841,"children":842},{},[843,852],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":844,"children":845},{},[846],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":847,"children":849},{"className":848},[],[850],{"type":506,"value":851},"588",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":853,"children":854},{},[855],{"type":506,"value":856},"First Perso-Turkic War. An attempt of the Turkic Khaganate to invade Afghanistan. But Bahram Chobin of Persia defeats the Turkic Khaganate.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":858,"children":859},{},[860,869],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":861,"children":862},{},[863],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":864,"children":866},{"className":865},[],[867],{"type":506,"value":868},"593",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":870,"children":871},{},[872],{"type":506,"value":873},"End of Turkic interregnum.",{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":875,"children":877},{"id":876},"establishment-of-the-göktürk-khaganate",[878],{"type":506,"value":879},"Establishment of the Göktürk Khaganate",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":881,"children":882},{},[883,885,891],{"type":506,"value":884},"The Göktürk Khaganate, the earliest securely attested state bearing the Türk name, emerged in 552 CE through the rebellion of the Ashina clan against their Rouran overlords in the Mongolian steppes. Bumin (Tumen), leader of the Ashina Turks who controlled iron mines in the Altai Mountains, capitalized on Rouran internal divisions and economic leverage from weapon production to assert independence. In coordination with his brother Istämi, Bumin allied with the Western Wei dynasty of China, defeating Rouran forces under Anagui Khan and proclaiming himself Il Qaghan (Sovereign Emperor) that year, thereby unifying disparate Turkic tribes under a dual khaganate structure with eastern and western wings.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":886,"children":888},{"href":887},"#reference-5",[889],{"type":506,"value":890},"[5]",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":892,"children":894},{"href":893},"#reference-6",[895],{"type":506,"value":896},"[6]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":898,"children":899},{},[900,902],{"type":506,"value":901},"This establishment marked a shift from tribal vassalage to imperial hegemony, as the Göktürks rapidly subdued neighboring groups like the Tiele and expanded control over the eastern Eurasian steppes, leveraging cavalry tactics and the tengri sky-god ideology central to Turkic rulership. Chinese chronicles, such as the Zhou Shu, record Bumin's envoys seeking recognition from the Western Wei emperor, who granted titles in exchange for Rouran captives, confirming the khaganate's consolidation by late 552. Bumin's death shortly thereafter—likely from natural causes—led to succession by his son Issik Qaghan (Kara Issik), while Istämi governed the western territories, solidifying the khaganate's bipolar administration that balanced power between siblings to prevent fragmentation.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":903,"children":905},{"href":904},"#reference-7",[906],{"type":506,"value":907},"[7]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":909,"children":910},{},[911,913,917],{"type":506,"value":912},"Later Orkhon inscriptions from the 8th century affirm this founding narrative, attributing to Bumin and Istämi the division of the world between them—\"When the blue sky above and the brown earth below were created, between them a human being was created... My ancestors Bumin Kagan and Istemi Kagan ruled over the people\"—emphasizing causal factors like tribal unification and anti-Rouran campaigns as foundational to Göktürk identity and expansion. By 555 CE, the Rouran khaganate had fully collapsed, with remnants submitting to Chinese states or integrating into Göktürk domains, enabling the new khaganate to extract tribute and project power across Central Asia.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":914,"children":915},{"href":887},[916],{"type":506,"value":890},{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":918,"children":919},{"href":893},[920],{"type":506,"value":896},{"data":922,"body":923},{},{"type":498,"children":924},[925,1498,1504,1529,1550,1575,1581,1596,1613],{"type":501,"tag":591,"props":926,"children":927},{},[928,942],{"type":501,"tag":595,"props":929,"children":930},{},[931],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":932,"children":933},{},[934,938],{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":935,"children":936},{},[937],{"type":506,"value":607},{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":939,"children":940},{},[941],{"type":506,"value":612},{"type":501,"tag":614,"props":943,"children":944},{},[945,962,979,996,1013,1030,1047,1064,1081,1106,1123,1140,1157,1174,1191,1208,1225,1242,1259,1280,1301,1322,1342,1363,1379,1396,1418,1435,1452,1469],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":946,"children":947},{},[948,957],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":949,"children":950},{},[951],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":952,"children":954},{"className":953},[],[955],{"type":506,"value":956},"609",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":958,"children":959},{},[960],{"type":506,"value":961},"Shibi Khan becomes the khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":963,"children":964},{},[965,974],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":966,"children":967},{},[968],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":969,"children":971},{"className":970},[],[972],{"type":506,"value":973},"615",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":975,"children":976},{},[977],{"type":506,"value":978},"Shibi Khan's advisor is executed by Pei Ju at a negotiation in Mayi; the khan retaliates by invading Yanmen Commandery during a visit there by Emperor Yang, besieging him and his court at the commandery seat (present-day Daixian, Shanxi). He lifts the siege following a false report from his wife, the Sui princess Yicheng, that the khaganate is under attack from the north.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":980,"children":981},{},[982,991],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":983,"children":984},{},[985],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":986,"children":988},{"className":987},[],[989],{"type":506,"value":990},"618",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":992,"children":993},{},[994],{"type":506,"value":995},"Tong Yabghu Qaghan becomes the khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate. 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Tong Yabghu Qaghan raids as far as to Isfahan; but is repelled.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1014,"children":1015},{},[1016,1025],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1017,"children":1018},{},[1019],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1020,"children":1022},{"className":1021},[],[1023],{"type":506,"value":1024},"625",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1026,"children":1027},{},[1028],{"type":506,"value":1029},"Alliance with the Byzantine Empire under Heraclius when the emperor requests military aid from the Turks under Tong Yabghu.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1031,"children":1032},{},[1033,1042],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1034,"children":1035},{},[1036],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1037,"children":1039},{"className":1038},[],[1040],{"type":506,"value":1041},"626",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1043,"children":1044},{},[1045],{"type":506,"value":1046},"Illig Qaghan takes advantage of the Incident at Xuanwu Gate and charges to Wei River.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1048,"children":1049},{},[1050,1059],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1051,"children":1052},{},[1053],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1054,"children":1056},{"className":1055},[],[1057],{"type":506,"value":1058},"627",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1060,"children":1061},{},[1062],{"type":506,"value":1063},"Perso-Turkic war of 627–629. 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Tang army under the command of Li Jing defeats the Eastern Turkic Khaganate at Battle of Yinshan. Emperor Taizong says It's enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River (626).",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1099,"children":1101},{"href":1100},"#reference-4",[1102],{"type":506,"value":1103},"[4]",{"type":506,"value":1105}," East khaganate becomes vassal of China.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1107,"children":1108},{},[1109,1118],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1110,"children":1111},{},[1112],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1113,"children":1115},{"className":1114},[],[1116],{"type":506,"value":1117},"632",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1119,"children":1120},{},[1121],{"type":506,"value":1122},"Kubrat unified and ruled Old Great Bulgaria.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1124,"children":1125},{},[1126,1135],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1127,"children":1128},{},[1129],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1130,"children":1132},{"className":1131},[],[1133],{"type":506,"value":1134},"638",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1136,"children":1137},{},[1138],{"type":506,"value":1139},"The two wings of the Western Turkic Kaganate (Nushibi and Tulo) split, with the Ili river as the boundary.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1141,"children":1142},{},[1143,1152],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1144,"children":1145},{},[1146],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1147,"children":1149},{"className":1148},[],[1150],{"type":506,"value":1151},"639",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1153,"children":1154},{},[1155],{"type":506,"value":1156},"Ashina Jiesheshuai's unsuccessful raid against Jiucheng Palace.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1158,"children":1159},{},[1160,1169],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1161,"children":1162},{},[1163],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1164,"children":1166},{"className":1165},[],[1167],{"type":506,"value":1168},"640",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1170,"children":1171},{},[1172],{"type":506,"value":1173},"Yukuk Shad tries to unite the Onok tribes, but soon escapes to Kunduz in Afghanistan.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1175,"children":1176},{},[1177,1186],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1178,"children":1179},{},[1180],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1181,"children":1183},{"className":1182},[],[1184],{"type":506,"value":1185},"642",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1187,"children":1188},{},[1189],{"type":506,"value":1190},"Western Turkic soldiers retreat from Gaochang and the kingdom is captured by Tang dynasty forces. 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Western khaganate becomes vassal of China. 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Ashina Nishu Beg was killed by his men.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1319,"children":1320},{"href":893},[1321],{"type":506,"value":896},{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1323,"children":1324},{},[1325,1333],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1326,"children":1327},{},[1328],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1329,"children":1331},{"className":1330},[],[1332],{"type":506,"value":1312},{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1334,"children":1335},{},[1336,1338],{"type":506,"value":1337},"Ashide Wenfu made Ashina Funian a qaghan and revolted against Tang dynasty.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1339,"children":1340},{"href":893},[1341],{"type":506,"value":896},{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1343,"children":1344},{},[1345,1354],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1346,"children":1347},{},[1348],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1349,"children":1351},{"className":1350},[],[1352],{"type":506,"value":1353},"681",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1355,"children":1356},{},[1357,1359],{"type":506,"value":1358},"Ashide Wenfu and Ashina Funian surrendered to Pei Xingjian. 54 Turks (including Ashide Wenfu, Ashina Funian) were publicly executed in the Eastern Market of Chang'an.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1360,"children":1361},{"href":893},[1362],{"type":506,"value":896},{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1364,"children":1365},{},[1366,1374],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1367,"children":1368},{},[1369],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1370,"children":1372},{"className":1371},[],[1373],{"type":506,"value":1353},{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1375,"children":1376},{},[1377],{"type":506,"value":1378},"Ashina Kutlug revolts with the remnants of Ashina Funian's men.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1380,"children":1381},{},[1382,1391],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1383,"children":1384},{},[1385],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1386,"children":1388},{"className":1387},[],[1389],{"type":506,"value":1390},"682",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1392,"children":1393},{},[1394],{"type":506,"value":1395},"Ashina Kutlug becomes Ilterish Qaghan and establishes the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1397,"children":1398},{},[1399,1408],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1400,"children":1401},{},[1402],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1403,"children":1405},{"className":1404},[],[1406],{"type":506,"value":1407},"685",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1409,"children":1410},{},[1411,1413],{"type":506,"value":1412},"Ilterish Qaghan defeats the Chinese in Hin Chu.",{"type":501,"tag":755,"props":1414,"children":1415},{},[1416],{"type":506,"value":1417},"citation needed",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1419,"children":1420},{},[1421,1430],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1422,"children":1423},{},[1424],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1425,"children":1427},{"className":1426},[],[1428],{"type":506,"value":1429},"693",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1431,"children":1432},{},[1433],{"type":506,"value":1434},"Barsbek proclaims the creation of the Kyrgyz Khaganate.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1436,"children":1437},{},[1438,1447],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1439,"children":1440},{},[1441],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1442,"children":1444},{"className":1443},[],[1445],{"type":506,"value":1446},"694",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1448,"children":1449},{},[1450],{"type":506,"value":1451},"Death of Ilterish Qaghan. Qapaghan Qaghan becomes the second khagan.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1453,"children":1454},{},[1455,1464],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1456,"children":1457},{},[1458],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1459,"children":1461},{"className":1460},[],[1462],{"type":506,"value":1463},"695",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1465,"children":1466},{},[1467],{"type":506,"value":1468},"Qapagan recognises Barsbek as the Khagan of the Kyrgyz.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1470,"children":1471},{},[1472,1481],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1473,"children":1474},{},[1475],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1476,"children":1478},{"className":1477},[],[1479],{"type":506,"value":1480},"698",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1482,"children":1483},{},[1484,1486,1490,1492,1496],{"type":506,"value":1485},"Qapagan annexes Turkestan",{"type":501,"tag":755,"props":1487,"children":1488},{},[1489],{"type":506,"value":1417},{"type":506,"value":1491}," (On Oq territory).",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1493,"children":1494},{"href":904},[1495],{"type":506,"value":907},{"type":506,"value":1497}," against Turgesh.",{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":1499,"children":1501},{"id":1500},"göktürk-apogee-and-tang-conflicts",[1502],{"type":506,"value":1503},"Göktürk Apogee and Tang Conflicts",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":1505,"children":1506},{},[1507,1509,1515,1517,1523,1525],{"type":506,"value":1508},"The Eastern Göktürk Khaganate attained its zenith in the early 7th century under Illig Qaghan (r. 620–630), who restored centralized authority following decades of fratricidal strife and fragmentation after the death of Taspar Qaghan in 581.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1510,"children":1512},{"href":1511},"#reference-8",[1513],{"type":506,"value":1514},"[8]",{"type":506,"value":1516}," Illig subdued vassal tribes including the Xueyantuo and expanded influence across the Mongolian Plateau, extracting annual tribute of 100,000 bolts of silk from the nascent Tang dynasty while maintaining suzerainty over nomadic confederations from the Altai to the eastern steppes.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1518,"children":1520},{"href":1519},"#reference-9",[1521],{"type":506,"value":1522},"[9]",{"type":506,"value":1524}," This period of dominance reflected Göktürk military prowess, with their cavalry forces numbering up to 100,000 warriors, enabling raids deep into Chinese territory and diplomatic leverage that compelled Tang Emperor Gaozu to seek alliance in 617 during the Sui collapse.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1526,"children":1527},{"href":1511},[1528],{"type":506,"value":1514},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":1530,"children":1531},{},[1532,1534,1538,1540,1544,1546],{"type":506,"value":1533},"Tensions escalated after the Xuanwu Gate Incident in 626, when Taizong (Li Shimin) ascended amid internal purges; Illig exploited Tang instability by advancing armies to the Weishui River near Chang'an, forcing a humiliating peace treaty that included increased tribute and territorial concessions.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1535,"children":1536},{"href":1511},[1537],{"type":506,"value":1514},{"type":506,"value":1539}," However, Göktürk apogee unraveled due to environmental catastrophes—severe snowstorms and droughts from 627–628 decimating herds and sparking famines—compounded by elite jealousies and tribal defections to Tang agents.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1541,"children":1542},{"href":1519},[1543],{"type":506,"value":1522},{"type":506,"value":1545}," Taizong capitalized on these fissures, dispatching General Li Jing with 100,000 troops in a multi-pronged winter offensive in 629, employing feigned retreats and rapid cavalry maneuvers to outflank Göktürk positions.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1547,"children":1548},{"href":1519},[1549],{"type":506,"value":1522},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":1551,"children":1552},{},[1553,1555,1559,1563,1565,1569,1571],{"type":506,"value":1554},"The decisive clash occurred at Yinshan in early 630, where Tang forces shattered Illig's army at Tieshan, prompting his flight; Li Jing pursued and captured the qaghan near Dingxiang on March 27, 630, along with his son and 15,000 elites, effectively dismantling the khaganate's core structure.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1556,"children":1557},{"href":1511},[1558],{"type":506,"value":1514},{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1560,"children":1561},{"href":1519},[1562],{"type":506,"value":1522},{"type":506,"value":1564}," Tang incorporated surviving Ashina clans as puppets, installing Ashina Jiesheshuai as a nominal qaghan under the Jimi tributary system, while Xueyantuo tribes filled the power vacuum north of the Gobi, setting the stage for further Tang interventions.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1566,"children":1567},{"href":1511},[1568],{"type":506,"value":1514},{"type":506,"value":1570}," These conflicts, chronicled in Tang annals like the Jiu Tangshu, underscored Göktürk overextension against a resurgent agrarian empire leveraging superior logistics and intelligence.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1572,"children":1573},{"href":1519},[1574],{"type":506,"value":1522},{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":1576,"children":1578},{"id":1577},"collapse-of-the-first-khaganate",[1579],{"type":506,"value":1580},"Collapse of the First Khaganate",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":1582,"children":1583},{},[1584,1586,1590,1592],{"type":506,"value":1585},"The unified Göktürk Khaganate began to fracture in the late 6th century due to dynastic conflicts and succession disputes within the Ashina clan, exacerbated by economic strains from prolonged wars and harsh climatic conditions. Following the death of Taspar Khagan in 581, rival claimants including his son Apa Khagan and uncle Tardu Khagan engaged in civil strife, weakening central authority and prompting tribal defections.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1587,"children":1588},{"href":893},[1589],{"type":506,"value":896},{"type":506,"value":1591}," These internal divisions culminated in the khaganate's effective collapse by 603, splitting into the semi-independent Eastern Turkic Khaganate under Yami lineage rulers and the Western Turkic Khaganate under Tardu lineage rulers, with the former controlling territories east of the Altai Mountains.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1593,"children":1594},{"href":1511},[1595],{"type":506,"value":1514},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":1597,"children":1598},{},[1599,1601,1607,1609],{"type":506,"value":1600},"The Eastern Khaganate, initially stabilized under Chuluo Khagan (r. 617–620) and then Illig Khagan (r. 620–630), faced renewed instability from 620 onward, including rebellions by subordinate tribes like the Xueyantuo and severe snowstorms in 627–628 that decimated livestock and provoked mass discontent. Illig's harsh exactions and favoritism toward certain allies alienated key supporters, while Tang Dynasty envoys exploited these fissures by forging alliances with disaffected Turkic leaders such as the Tiele tribes.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1602,"children":1604},{"href":1603},"#reference-10",[1605],{"type":506,"value":1606},"[10]",{"type":506,"value":1608}," In 627, Emperor Taizong of Tang authorized preemptive strikes, mobilizing forces under generals Li Jing and Li Shiji to probe northern borders.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1610,"children":1611},{"href":1511},[1612],{"type":506,"value":1514},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":1614,"children":1615},{},[1616,1618,1622,1624,1628,1630],{"type":506,"value":1617},"The decisive Tang campaign unfolded in late 629 to spring 630, with Li Jing's army of approximately 100,000, augmented by Turkic auxiliaries, advancing through the Yin Mountains to surprise Illig's encampment at Niehpanbo (near modern Baotou, Inner Mongolia) on March 17, 630. Illig Khagan fled but was captured shortly after, along with his son and key regalia including the sacred wolf standard and heavenly drum, symbols of Göktürk legitimacy; over 100,000 Turkic households surrendered, marking the Eastern Khaganate's subjugation as Tang protectorates.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1619,"children":1620},{"href":1603},[1621],{"type":506,"value":1606},{"type":506,"value":1623}," ",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1625,"children":1626},{"href":1511},[1627],{"type":506,"value":1514},{"type":506,"value":1629}," Many Eastern Turks were resettled within Tang borders, contributing to military forces but diluting nomadic cohesion, while remnants fled westward, presaging migrations that influenced later Turkic polities.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1631,"children":1632},{"href":893},[1633],{"type":506,"value":896},{"data":1635,"body":1636},{},{"type":498,"children":1637},[1638,2189,2195,2218,2239,2266,2272,2289,2310],{"type":501,"tag":591,"props":1639,"children":1640},{},[1641,1655],{"type":501,"tag":595,"props":1642,"children":1643},{},[1644],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1645,"children":1646},{},[1647,1651],{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":1648,"children":1649},{},[1650],{"type":506,"value":607},{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":1652,"children":1653},{},[1654],{"type":506,"value":612},{"type":501,"tag":614,"props":1656,"children":1657},{},[1658,1675,1692,1709,1726,1747,1774,1790,1807,1823,1840,1857,1878,1895,1912,1929,1946,1963,1980,1997,2014,2030,2047,2064,2081,2098,2115,2138,2155,2172],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1659,"children":1660},{},[1661,1670],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1662,"children":1663},{},[1664],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1665,"children":1667},{"className":1666},[],[1668],{"type":506,"value":1669},"704",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1671,"children":1672},{},[1673],{"type":506,"value":1674},"Umayyad governor Qutayba ibn Muslim invades Transoxiana.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1676,"children":1677},{},[1678,1687],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1679,"children":1680},{},[1681],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1682,"children":1684},{"className":1683},[],[1685],{"type":506,"value":1686},"710",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1688,"children":1689},{},[1690],{"type":506,"value":1691},"Second Turkic Khaganate inflicted a crushing defeat on the Kyrgyz Khaganate. Barsbek, Khagan of the Kyrgyz, fell in battle, and his descendants were to remain vassals of the Göktürks for several generations.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1693,"children":1694},{},[1695,1704],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1696,"children":1697},{},[1698],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1699,"children":1701},{"className":1700},[],[1702],{"type":506,"value":1703},"711",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1705,"children":1706},{},[1707],{"type":506,"value":1708},"in the Battle of Bolchu, Turkic army defeats Turgesh.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1710,"children":1711},{},[1712,1721],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1713,"children":1714},{},[1715],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1716,"children":1718},{"className":1717},[],[1719],{"type":506,"value":1720},"713",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1722,"children":1723},{},[1724],{"type":506,"value":1725},"Turco-Arab wars in Transoxiana. Arab victory leads to shift of power in Turkestan from Turkic Khaganate to their Turgesh vassals again.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1727,"children":1728},{},[1729,1738],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1730,"children":1731},{},[1732],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1733,"children":1735},{"className":1734},[],[1736],{"type":506,"value":1737},"716",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1739,"children":1740},{},[1741,1743],{"type":506,"value":1742},"First treaty with known terms between Byzantine Emperor Theodosios III and Danube Bulgaria Khan Tervel delineating borders, fixing the size of Byzantine annual tribute to the Khan at 30 lb. of gold, exchange of prisoners, return of refugees, and unimpeded trade between the two countries",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1744,"children":1745},{"href":1511},[1746],{"type":506,"value":1514},{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1748,"children":1749},{},[1750,1759],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1751,"children":1752},{},[1753],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1754,"children":1756},{"className":1755},[],[1757],{"type":506,"value":1758},"716 (?)",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1760,"children":1761},{},[1762,1764,1768,1770],{"type":506,"value":1763},"Qapaghan Qaghan was killed in his campaign against Toquz Oghuz and his head was sent to Changan.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1765,"children":1766},{"href":1519},[1767],{"type":506,"value":1522},{"type":506,"value":1769}," Kul Tigin carried out a coup d'état. They killed Qapaghan's son and brothers and made Bilge Qaghan a Kaghan.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1771,"children":1772},{"href":1519},[1773],{"type":506,"value":1522},{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1775,"children":1776},{},[1777,1785],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1778,"children":1779},{},[1780],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1781,"children":1783},{"className":1782},[],[1784],{"type":506,"value":1737},{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1786,"children":1787},{},[1788],{"type":506,"value":1789},"The first written records in Old Turkic language. Bain Tsokto inscriptions of Tonyukuk. (These monuments have been erected by himself, a few years before his death.)",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1791,"children":1792},{},[1793,1802],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1794,"children":1795},{},[1796],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1797,"children":1799},{"className":1798},[],[1800],{"type":506,"value":1801},"717",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1803,"children":1804},{},[1805],{"type":506,"value":1806},"Inel Qaghan gets overthrown by Kul Tigin. Bilge Kaghan ascends to the throne.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1808,"children":1809},{},[1810,1818],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1811,"children":1812},{},[1813],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1814,"children":1816},{"className":1815},[],[1817],{"type":506,"value":1801},{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1819,"children":1820},{},[1821],{"type":506,"value":1822},"Suluk becomes Turgesh Khaghan.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1824,"children":1825},{},[1826,1835],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1827,"children":1828},{},[1829],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1830,"children":1832},{"className":1831},[],[1833],{"type":506,"value":1834},"718",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1836,"children":1837},{},[1838],{"type":506,"value":1839},"A short period of stability in Turkic Empire. Bilge and his triumvirate (Kültiğin and Tonyukuk) suppress all revolts.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1841,"children":1842},{},[1843,1852],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1844,"children":1845},{},[1846],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1847,"children":1849},{"className":1848},[],[1850],{"type":506,"value":1851},"723",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1853,"children":1854},{},[1855],{"type":506,"value":1856},"Governor al-Harashi of Umayyad Arabs massacres Turks and Sogdian refugees for the second time in Khujand",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1858,"children":1859},{},[1860,1869],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1861,"children":1862},{},[1863],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1864,"children":1866},{"className":1865},[],[1867],{"type":506,"value":1868},"724",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1870,"children":1871},{},[1872,1874],{"type":506,"value":1873},"Turgesh Kaghan Suluk defeats superior Umayyad Arab armies by his hit and run tactics so called \"The Day of Thirst\" (Yawm al-'Atash)",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":1875,"children":1876},{"href":1603},[1877],{"type":506,"value":1606},{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1879,"children":1880},{},[1881,1890],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1882,"children":1883},{},[1884],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1885,"children":1887},{"className":1886},[],[1888],{"type":506,"value":1889},"728",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1891,"children":1892},{},[1893],{"type":506,"value":1894},"Turgesh Qaghan Suluk defeats Umayyad Arab armies for the second time.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1896,"children":1897},{},[1898,1907],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1899,"children":1900},{},[1901],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1902,"children":1904},{"className":1903},[],[1905],{"type":506,"value":1906},"730 (?)",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1908,"children":1909},{},[1910],{"type":506,"value":1911},"Khazars defeat Umayyad Arab armies in southern Caucasus. But victorious Qaghan Barjik dies in the battle.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1913,"children":1914},{},[1915,1924],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1916,"children":1917},{},[1918],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1919,"children":1921},{"className":1920},[],[1922],{"type":506,"value":1923},"734",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1925,"children":1926},{},[1927],{"type":506,"value":1928},"Death of Bilge Khagan.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1930,"children":1931},{},[1932,1941],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1933,"children":1934},{},[1935],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1936,"children":1938},{"className":1937},[],[1939],{"type":506,"value":1940},"735",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1942,"children":1943},{},[1944],{"type":506,"value":1945},"Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments of Bilge Khagan and his brother Kül Tigin. (Bilge has already erected Kül Tigin's monument and Bilge's son erects Bilge's monument.) Together with Bain Tsokto monument of Tonyukuk, these monuments are called Orkhon monuments. (In 2004 the monuments are included in List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia)",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1947,"children":1948},{},[1949,1958],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1950,"children":1951},{},[1952],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":1953,"children":1955},{"className":1954},[],[1956],{"type":506,"value":1957},"737",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":1959,"children":1960},{},[1961],{"type":506,"value":1962},"Umayyad Arabs defeat Khazars and capture Khazar capital Balanjar. Khazars soon after drive Arabs back. 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But the subjects are free to choose their religion.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":1998,"children":1999},{},[2000,2009],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2001,"children":2002},{},[2003],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2004,"children":2006},{"className":2005},[],[2007],{"type":506,"value":2008},"744",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2010,"children":2011},{},[2012],{"type":506,"value":2013},"Turkic subjects like Basmyl, Uyghur and Karluk who are not the members of Ashina clan stage a coup. End of Ashina clan. (except in Khazaria)",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2015,"children":2016},{},[2017,2025],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2018,"children":2019},{},[2020],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2021,"children":2023},{"className":2022},[],[2024],{"type":506,"value":2008},{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2026,"children":2027},{},[2028],{"type":506,"value":2029},"First Uyghur khan Kutluk Bilge. Uyghurs replace Turkic Khaganate in the east and their vassal Karluks begin to conquer the former Onoq territory in the west.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2031,"children":2032},{},[2033,2042],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2034,"children":2035},{},[2036],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2037,"children":2039},{"className":2038},[],[2040],{"type":506,"value":2041},"747",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2043,"children":2044},{},[2045],{"type":506,"value":2046},"Second Uyghur khan Bayanchur Khan who begins the construction of a big capital city Ordu Baliq",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2048,"children":2049},{},[2050,2059],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2051,"children":2052},{},[2053],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2054,"children":2056},{"className":2055},[],[2057],{"type":506,"value":2058},"750",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2060,"children":2061},{},[2062],{"type":506,"value":2063},"Arab empire Umayyad dynasty ends. Abbasid policy more tolerant to Turks.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2065,"children":2066},{},[2067,2076],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2068,"children":2069},{},[2070],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2071,"children":2073},{"className":2072},[],[2074],{"type":506,"value":2075},"751",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2077,"children":2078},{},[2079],{"type":506,"value":2080},"Arabs defeat Chinese in the Battle of Talas during which 20,000 Karluk mercenaries switch to the Arab side in the middle of the battle.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2082,"children":2083},{},[2084,2093],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2085,"children":2086},{},[2087],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2088,"children":2090},{"className":2089},[],[2091],{"type":506,"value":2092},"753",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2094,"children":2095},{},[2096],{"type":506,"value":2097},"Tariat inscriptions of Bayanchor Khan of Uyghurs. (probable date)",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2099,"children":2100},{},[2101,2110],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2102,"children":2103},{},[2104],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2105,"children":2107},{"className":2106},[],[2108],{"type":506,"value":2109},"755",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2111,"children":2112},{},[2113],{"type":506,"value":2114},"After the battle of Talas civil war in China. Bayanchor supports Chinese emperor against rebellious general An Lushan.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2116,"children":2117},{},[2118,2127],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2119,"children":2120},{},[2121],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2122,"children":2124},{"className":2123},[],[2125],{"type":506,"value":2126},"756",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2128,"children":2129},{},[2130,2132],{"type":506,"value":2131},"Peace treaty between Byzantine Emperor Constantine V and Danube Bulgaria Khan Kormisosh ending long period of military conflict",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2133,"children":2135},{"href":2134},"#reference-11",[2136],{"type":506,"value":2137},"[11]",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2139,"children":2140},{},[2141,2150],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2142,"children":2143},{},[2144],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2145,"children":2147},{"className":2146},[],[2148],{"type":506,"value":2149},"765",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2151,"children":2152},{},[2153],{"type":506,"value":2154},"Third Uyghur khan Bogu embraces Manicheism.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2156,"children":2157},{},[2158,2167],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2159,"children":2160},{},[2161],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2162,"children":2164},{"className":2163},[],[2165],{"type":506,"value":2166},"766",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2168,"children":2169},{},[2170],{"type":506,"value":2171},"Karluks defeat Turgesh. Most of Turkestan (former Onak territory) under Karluk rule. But in the west of Lake Aral a loose confederation named Oghuz Yabgu State emerges.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2173,"children":2174},{},[2175,2184],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2176,"children":2177},{},[2178],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2179,"children":2181},{"className":2180},[],[2182],{"type":506,"value":2183},"789",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2185,"children":2186},{},[2187],{"type":506,"value":2188},"Ediz house replaces Yaglakar house in Uyghur Khaganate.",{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":2190,"children":2192},{"id":2191},"second-göktürk-khaganate",[2193],{"type":506,"value":2194},"Second Göktürk Khaganate",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2196,"children":2197},{},[2198,2200,2204,2208,2210,2216],{"type":506,"value":2199},"The Second Göktürk Khaganate was reestablished in 682 CE when Ilteriş Qaghan (r. 682–691), also known as Kutlug, a member of the Ashina clan, led a revolt against Tang dynasty overlords and captured the sacred center of Ötüken in Mongolia, uniting fragmented Turkic tribes including the remnants of the Oğuz, Basmıl, and other groups previously subjugated by Chinese forces.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2201,"children":2202},{"href":887},[2203],{"type":506,"value":890},{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2205,"children":2206},{"href":2134},[2207],{"type":506,"value":2137},{"type":506,"value":2209}," This revival followed decades of Tang protectorate control after the first khaganate's collapse, exploiting Chinese internal weaknesses during the Wu Zetian era to restore Ashina authority over the eastern steppes.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2211,"children":2213},{"href":2212},"#reference-12",[2214],{"type":506,"value":2215},"[12]",{"type":506,"value":2217}," Ilteriş's campaigns focused on consolidating power eastward from the Yin Mountains, subduing local rivals and reasserting nomadic sovereignty without immediate large-scale western expansion.",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2219,"children":2220},{},[2221,2223,2227,2229,2233],{"type":506,"value":2222},"Under Ilteriş's brother and successor, Qapaghan Qaghan (r. 691–716), the khaganate expanded aggressively, incorporating tribes such as the Bayırku, Toquz Oghuz, and Kyrgyz through military coercion and tribute extraction, while raiding Tang borders in 698 and 711 to secure resources and prestige.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2224,"children":2225},{"href":887},[2226],{"type":506,"value":890},{"type":506,"value":2228}," Qapaghan's death during a 716 campaign against the Bayırku tribe triggered succession struggles, leading to the ascension of his nephew Bilge Qaghan (r. 716–734), supported by his brother Kul Tigin as military commander (shad). Bilge's reign marked the khaganate's peak, with victories over Tang forces in 717–718 that halted Chinese incursions and forced tribute payments by 720, alongside defenses against Kyrgyz and eastern threats; these feats are detailed in the Orkhon inscriptions, runic monuments erected in 732 for Kul Tigin and posthumously for Bilge in 735, emphasizing themes of tribal unity, anti-Chinese independence, and Tengrist legitimacy.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2230,"children":2231},{"href":2134},[2232],{"type":506,"value":2137},{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2234,"children":2236},{"href":2235},"#reference-13",[2237],{"type":506,"value":2238},"[13]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2240,"children":2241},{},[2242,2244,2250,2252,2256,2260,2262],{"type":506,"value":2243},"Post-Bilge decline accelerated after Kul Tigin's death in 731 and Bilge's in 734, with unstable rulers like Yollïg Tengri Qaghan and Özmiş Khagan (r. 734–741) facing assassinations and revolts amid factional strife among subordinate tribes.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2245,"children":2247},{"href":2246},"#reference-14",[2248],{"type":506,"value":2249},"[14]",{"type":506,"value":2251}," Tengri Qaghan (r. 741–744) was murdered by his own shad in 741, exacerbating chaos that invited external intervention; in 744, a coalition of Uyghurs under Kutlug Bilge Kagan, allied with Karluks and Basmıls, overthrew the Göktürks, capturing Ötüken, executing the last khagan, and establishing Uyghur dominance, thus terminating the Second Khaganate after 62 years.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2253,"children":2254},{"href":2134},[2255],{"type":506,"value":2137},{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2257,"children":2258},{"href":2246},[2259],{"type":506,"value":2249},{"type":506,"value":2261}," This fall stemmed from overreliance on coercive tribal alliances and failure to resolve internal power vacuums, as evidenced by Chinese annals and the Orkhon texts' warnings against disunity.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2263,"children":2264},{"href":2235},[2265],{"type":506,"value":2238},{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":2267,"children":2269},{"id":2268},"rise-of-the-uyghur-khaganate",[2270],{"type":506,"value":2271},"Rise of the Uyghur Khaganate",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2273,"children":2274},{},[2275,2277,2283,2285],{"type":506,"value":2276},"The Uyghur Khaganate was established in 744 CE when the Uyghurs, a Turkic-speaking nomadic confederation primarily from the Toquz Oghuz tribal alliance, overthrew the weakening Second Göktürk Khaganate through a coordinated rebellion involving the Karluks and Basmyls.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2278,"children":2280},{"href":2279},"#reference-15",[2281],{"type":506,"value":2282},"[15]",{"type":506,"value":2284}," This uprising capitalized on Göktürk internal strife and military overextension, with the rebels exploiting the khaganate's fragmented authority in the Mongolian steppes.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2286,"children":2287},{"href":2279},[2288],{"type":506,"value":2282},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2290,"children":2291},{},[2292,2294,2298,2300,2304,2306],{"type":506,"value":2293},"In early 744, the Basmyls seized the Göktürk ceremonial capital of Ötüken and executed the reigning khagan Özmiş (also known as Wu-su-mi-shi), temporarily establishing their own short-lived khaganate.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2295,"children":2296},{"href":2279},[2297],{"type":506,"value":2282},{"type":506,"value":2299}," The Uyghurs, led by Qutluγ Bilgä Köl Qaγan (Kutlug Bilge Kul Qaghan) of the Yaghlakar clan, then allied with the Karluks to decisively defeat the Basmyls later that year, securing Ötüken and eliminating remaining Göktürk resistance, including the execution of the last khagan Kulun Beg in 745, whose head was presented to the Tang court as a gesture of alliance.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2301,"children":2302},{"href":2279},[2303],{"type":506,"value":2282},{"type":506,"value":2305}," Qutluγ Bilgä, proclaimed as the first khagan, adopted Göktürk administrative models while relocating the political center to the newly fortified city of Ordu-Baliq (Qara Balgasun) along the Orkhon River, marking a shift toward semi-sedentary governance with advanced urban planning and trade integration.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2307,"children":2308},{"href":2279},[2309],{"type":506,"value":2282},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2311,"children":2312},{},[2313,2315,2319,2321],{"type":506,"value":2314},"The nascent khaganate quickly consolidated power by forging a tributary relationship with the Tang dynasty, receiving the honorific title of Huairen Khan from Emperor Xuanzong in recognition of Uyghur military support against steppe threats.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2316,"children":2317},{"href":2279},[2318],{"type":506,"value":2282},{"type":506,"value":2320}," This alliance provided economic benefits through silk and horse trade, enabling the Uyghurs to expand influence over eastern Central Asia, subdue subordinate tribes, and establish a stable realm spanning the Selenga and Orkhon valleys, with an estimated population incorporating tens of thousands of nomadic warriors organized in decimal military units. By the late 740s, under Qutluγ Bilgä's successors like his son Bayanchur Qaghan, the khaganate had transitioned from rebellion to imperial structure, inheriting Göktürk prestige while innovating in diplomacy and craftsmanship to sustain dominance until the 9th century.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2322,"children":2323},{"href":2279},[2324],{"type":506,"value":2282},{"data":2326,"body":2327},{},{"type":498,"children":2328},[2329,2536,2542,2565,2590,2615,2621,2640],{"type":501,"tag":591,"props":2330,"children":2331},{},[2332,2346],{"type":501,"tag":595,"props":2333,"children":2334},{},[2335],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2336,"children":2337},{},[2338,2342],{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":2339,"children":2340},{},[2341],{"type":506,"value":607},{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":2343,"children":2344},{},[2345],{"type":506,"value":612},{"type":501,"tag":614,"props":2347,"children":2348},{},[2349,2366,2383,2400,2417,2434,2451,2468,2485,2502,2519],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2350,"children":2351},{},[2352,2361],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2353,"children":2354},{},[2355],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2356,"children":2358},{"className":2357},[],[2359],{"type":506,"value":2360},"815",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2362,"children":2363},{},[2364],{"type":506,"value":2365},"Thirty Years’ Peace Treaty of 815 was signed in Constantinople between the Bulgarian khan Omurtag and the Byzantine Emperor Leo V the Armenian about 30-years peace.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2367,"children":2368},{},[2369,2378],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2370,"children":2371},{},[2372],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2373,"children":2375},{"className":2374},[],[2376],{"type":506,"value":2377},"820",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2379,"children":2380},{},[2381],{"type":506,"value":2382},"Kyrgyz start war with Uyghurs.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2384,"children":2385},{},[2386,2395],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2387,"children":2388},{},[2389],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2390,"children":2392},{"className":2391},[],[2393],{"type":506,"value":2394},"821",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2396,"children":2397},{},[2398],{"type":506,"value":2399},"Uyghurs repulse Tibetans.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2401,"children":2402},{},[2403,2412],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2404,"children":2405},{},[2406],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2407,"children":2409},{"className":2408},[],[2410],{"type":506,"value":2411},"836",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2413,"children":2414},{},[2415],{"type":506,"value":2416},"The capital of the caliphate (Arabian empire) is moved from Baghdad to the new city of Samarra by Caliph Al-Mu'tasim because of unrest caused by Turkic slave soldiers (named Mameluk). (Mameluk practice has begun shortly after Battle of Talas)",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2418,"children":2419},{},[2420,2429],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2421,"children":2422},{},[2423],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2424,"children":2426},{"className":2425},[],[2427],{"type":506,"value":2428},"840",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2430,"children":2431},{},[2432],{"type":506,"value":2433},"Kyrgyz (north) defeat Uyghurs. Re-establishment of the Kyrgyz Khaganate. Supported by Uyghur refugees, Karluks establish the state of Karakhanids in Transoxiana.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2435,"children":2436},{},[2437,2446],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2438,"children":2439},{},[2440],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2441,"children":2443},{"className":2442},[],[2444],{"type":506,"value":2445},"848",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2447,"children":2448},{},[2449],{"type":506,"value":2450},"Some Uyghur refugees establish a small state in Gansu, north China.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2452,"children":2453},{},[2454,2463],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2455,"children":2456},{},[2457],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2458,"children":2460},{"className":2459},[],[2461],{"type":506,"value":2462},"856",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2464,"children":2465},{},[2466],{"type":506,"value":2467},"A third group of Uyghur refugees establish another state in Turpan, present day Xinjiang, west China.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2469,"children":2470},{},[2471,2480],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2472,"children":2473},{},[2474],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2475,"children":2477},{"className":2476},[],[2478],{"type":506,"value":2479},"868",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2481,"children":2482},{},[2483],{"type":506,"value":2484},"Ahmad ibn Tulun, a Turkic mameluk general in Arab army founds Tulunid dynasty in Egypt.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2486,"children":2487},{},[2488,2497],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2489,"children":2490},{},[2491],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2492,"children":2494},{"className":2493},[],[2495],{"type":506,"value":2496},"881",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2498,"children":2499},{},[2500],{"type":506,"value":2501},"Three Khazar tribes collectively named Kabar diverge from the main body and move westwards together with the seven tribes of Magyars.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2503,"children":2504},{},[2505,2514],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2506,"children":2507},{},[2508],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2509,"children":2511},{"className":2510},[],[2512],{"type":506,"value":2513},"892",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2515,"children":2516},{},[2517],{"type":506,"value":2518},"Khazars force Pechenegs to west who in turn force Magyars to Hungary.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":2520,"children":2521},{},[2522,2531],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2523,"children":2524},{},[2525],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":2526,"children":2528},{"className":2527},[],[2529],{"type":506,"value":2530},"898",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":2532,"children":2533},{},[2534],{"type":506,"value":2535},"Treaty of 898 between the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon and the Byzantine Emperor Leo Choerosphactus after a devastating unprovoked war on Bulgaria from two sides and final Bulgarian victory resumes Byzantine payment of annual tribute to Danube Bulgaria",{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":2537,"children":2539},{"id":2538},"uyghur-dominance-and-decline",[2540],{"type":506,"value":2541},"Uyghur Dominance and Decline",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2543,"children":2544},{},[2545,2547,2553,2555,2559,2561],{"type":506,"value":2546},"The Uyghur Khaganate reached the zenith of its influence in the early 9th century, controlling the eastern Eurasian steppes from the Orkhon Valley to the Altai Mountains and exerting economic leverage over the Tang dynasty through horse trade for silk and other goods.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2548,"children":2550},{"href":2549},"#reference-16",[2551],{"type":506,"value":2552},"[16]",{"type":506,"value":2554}," This commerce, facilitated by Sogdian intermediaries, enriched the khagans, enabling urban development at the capital Ordu-Baliq (Karabalghasun), which featured palaces, temples, and irrigation systems supporting semi-sedentary agriculture alongside nomadic pastoralism.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2556,"children":2557},{"href":2549},[2558],{"type":506,"value":2552},{"type":506,"value":2560}," Culturally, the Uyghurs advanced a distinct identity, officially adopting Manichaeism as state religion by the late 8th century and adapting the Sogdian script into the Old Uyghur alphabet for administrative, literary, and religious texts, including translations of Buddhist and Manichaean works.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2562,"children":2563},{"href":2549},[2564],{"type":506,"value":2552},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2566,"children":2567},{},[2568,2570,2574,2576,2582,2584],{"type":506,"value":2569},"Diplomatic ties with Tang China bolstered Uyghur power; envoys from the early 9th century often included Manichaean clerics who doubled as traders, securing favorable terms amid Tang internal strife following the An Lushan Rebellion.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2571,"children":2572},{"href":2549},[2573],{"type":506,"value":2552},{"type":506,"value":2575}," However, by the 820s, signs of strain emerged, including succession disputes and overreliance on tribute extraction, which fueled discontent among tribal elites and Sogdian financiers integral to the economy.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2577,"children":2579},{"href":2578},"#reference-17",[2580],{"type":506,"value":2581},"[17]",{"type":506,"value":2583}," Natural disasters, such as floods and famines in the 830s, exacerbated these tensions, weakening military cohesion and prompting internal revolts.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2585,"children":2587},{"href":2586},"#reference-18",[2588],{"type":506,"value":2589},"[18]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2591,"children":2592},{},[2593,2595,2599,2601,2605,2609,2611],{"type":506,"value":2594},"The khaganate's collapse accelerated in 840 when internal rivalries culminated in betrayal: a disaffected Uyghur minister, Kulug Bagha, allied with the Yenisei Kyrgyz, inviting their invasion from the north with promises of support.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2596,"children":2597},{"href":2586},[2598],{"type":506,"value":2589},{"type":506,"value":2600}," The Kyrgyz, numbering around 80,000–100,000 warriors and backed tacitly by Tang forces seeking to eliminate a troublesome ally, routed Uyghur armies and sacked Ordu-Baliq, killing the khagan (likely Qasar or his successor) and massacring much of the elite.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2602,"children":2603},{"href":2578},[2604],{"type":506,"value":2581},{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2606,"children":2607},{"href":2586},[2608],{"type":506,"value":2589},{"type":506,"value":2610}," This cataclysmic event, compounded by ongoing Kyrgyz-Tang campaigns through 848, dismantled the khaganate's core structure, scattering survivors: some integrated into Kyrgyz tribes, others fled west to establish the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom in Gansu by the 840s, while remnants formed the Qocho Kingdom in the Turfan Depression, preserving Uyghur cultural continuity amid fragmentation.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2612,"children":2613},{"href":2578},[2614],{"type":506,"value":2581},{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":2616,"children":2618},{"id":2617},"western-expansions-karluks-and-oghuz",[2619],{"type":506,"value":2620},"Western Expansions: Karluks and Oghuz",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2622,"children":2623},{},[2624,2626,2632,2634,2638],{"type":506,"value":2625},"In the wake of the Uyghur Khaganate's collapse in 840 CE to Kyrgyz invasions, the Karluks under Bilge Kül Qadir Khan, ruler from Isfijab (modern Saryjuz), declared independence and consolidated power westward across the Semirechye (Zhetysu) and into Ferghana, absorbing fragmented Uyghur territories and tribal allies like the Chigils and Yagmas.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2627,"children":2629},{"href":2628},"#reference-19",[2630],{"type":506,"value":2631},"[19]",{"type":506,"value":2633}," This surge displaced weaker groups and positioned Karluk confederations to raid Transoxianan oases, fostering early tensions with the rising Samanid dynasty, whose 839 CE incursion captured Sayram but failed to halt Karluk resurgence.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":2635,"children":2636},{"href":2628},[2637],{"type":506,"value":2631},{"type":506,"value":2639}," By the late 9th century, western Karluk branches had integrated Sogdian trade networks, enhancing their military capacity through captured artisans and levies numbering in the tens of thousands, as inferred from Arab chroniclers' accounts of steppe incursions.",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":2641,"children":2642},{},[2643,2645,2651],{"type":506,"value":2644},"Concurrently, Oghuz tribes of the nascent Yabgu State pursued aggressive western thrusts from the Aral Sea fringes, allying with Karluks and Kimaks in the early 9th century to rout Pecheneg and Kangar confederations along the Syr Darya, securing dominance over its middle and lower reaches by circa 830 CE. 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(Seljuks of Rum, Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, Sultanate of Rum, Seljuks of Turkey, Seljuks of Anatolia, Sultanate of Iconium are among the many names used for this state)",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3299,"children":3300},{},[3301,3309],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3302,"children":3303},{},[3304],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3305,"children":3307},{"className":3306},[],[3308],{"type":506,"value":3292},{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3310,"children":3311},{},[3312],{"type":506,"value":3313},"Emergence of Khwarezm dynasty as a vassal of Great Seljuk Empire.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3315,"children":3316},{},[3317,3326],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3318,"children":3319},{},[3320],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3321,"children":3323},{"className":3322},[],[3324],{"type":506,"value":3325},"1081",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3327,"children":3328},{},[3329],{"type":506,"value":3330},"Tzachas of Smyrna founds a beylik (principality) in İzmir, Western Anatolia and emerges as the first sea power in Turkish history.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3332,"children":3333},{},[3334,3343],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3335,"children":3336},{},[3337],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3338,"children":3340},{"className":3339},[],[3341],{"type":506,"value":3342},"1085",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3344,"children":3345},{},[3346],{"type":506,"value":3347},"Tutush I, Malik Shah's brother founds a short lived principality in Syria.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3349,"children":3350},{},[3351,3360],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3352,"children":3353},{},[3354],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3355,"children":3357},{"className":3356},[],[3358],{"type":506,"value":3359},"1089",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3361,"children":3362},{},[3363],{"type":506,"value":3364},"Hungarians defeat the Kipchaks.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3366,"children":3367},{},[3368,3377],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3369,"children":3370},{},[3371],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3372,"children":3374},{"className":3373},[],[3375],{"type":506,"value":3376},"1091",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3378,"children":3379},{},[3380],{"type":506,"value":3381},"Kipchacks defeat the Pechenegs.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3383,"children":3384},{},[3385,3394],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3386,"children":3387},{},[3388],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3389,"children":3391},{"className":3390},[],[3392],{"type":506,"value":3393},"1093",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3395,"children":3396},{},[3397],{"type":506,"value":3398},"Kipchacks defeat Sviatopolk II of Kievan Rus' in the Battle of the Stugna River,",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3400,"children":3401},{},[3402,3411],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3403,"children":3404},{},[3405],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3406,"children":3408},{"className":3407},[],[3409],{"type":506,"value":3410},"1096",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3412,"children":3413},{},[3414],{"type":506,"value":3415},"Kılıç Arslan I of Seljuks defeats People's Crusade.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3417,"children":3418},{},[3419,3428],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3420,"children":3421},{},[3422],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3423,"children":3425},{"className":3424},[],[3426],{"type":506,"value":3427},"1097",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3429,"children":3430},{},[3431],{"type":506,"value":3432},"During First Crusade Crusades defeat Seljuks at the Battle of Dorylaeum. Capital İznik captured by Crusades (New capital Konya)",{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":3434,"children":3436},{"id":3435},"seljuk-conquests-and-empire-building",[3437],{"type":506,"value":3438},"Seljuk Conquests and Empire Building",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3440,"children":3441},{},[3442,3444,3450,3452],{"type":506,"value":3443},"The Seljuk Turks, originating from Oghuz tribal confederations in Central Asia, initiated their major conquests under Tughril Beg and his brother Chaghri Beg after migrating westward into Khorasan amid pressures from the Karakhanids and Ghaznavids. The pivotal Battle of Dandanqan on May 23, 1040, saw approximately 16,000 Seljuk horsemen decisively defeat a Ghaznavid army of around 50,000 under Sultan Mas'ud I, exploiting the enemy's supply shortages and low morale through mobile archery tactics and feigned retreats.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3445,"children":3447},{"href":3446},"#reference-36",[3448],{"type":506,"value":3449},"[36]",{"type":506,"value":3451}," This victory expelled the Ghaznavids from Khorasan, enabling Tughril to capture Nishapur in 1040 and establish it as a base, marking the transition from tribal raiding to systematic territorial control.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3453,"children":3454},{"href":3446},[3455],{"type":506,"value":3449},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3457,"children":3458},{},[3459,3461,3467,3469,3473],{"type":506,"value":3460},"By 1044, Tughril had consolidated eastern Persia, seizing cities like Merv, Herat, and Rayy, while neutralizing local Buyid emirs through alliances and force, thereby integrating Persian administrative traditions into Seljuk governance.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3462,"children":3464},{"href":3463},"#reference-37",[3465],{"type":506,"value":3466},"[37]",{"type":506,"value":3468}," In 1055, Tughril's army of roughly 10,000-20,000 entered Baghdad unopposed, deposing the Buyid regents who had dominated the Abbasid caliph since 945 and securing caliphal investiture as sultan, which legitimized Seljuk rule over Sunni Muslim territories and positioned them as defenders against Shiite Buyid and Fatimid influences.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3470,"children":3471},{"href":3463},[3472],{"type":506,"value":3466},{"type":506,"value":3474}," This conquest extended Seljuk influence into Iraq, with Tughril granting iqta land assignments to tribal warriors to sustain loyalty and revenue, laying the foundation for a decentralized yet sultanate-centered empire.",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3476,"children":3477},{},[3478,3480,3486,3488],{"type":506,"value":3479},"Alp Arslan, succeeding Tughril in 1063, accelerated westward expansion, subduing Armenia and Georgia by 1064 and raiding Byzantine Syria, before the Battle of Manzikert on August 26, 1071, where his 20,000-25,000 mobile cavalry overwhelmed Emperor Romanus IV's larger but rigid force of up to 100,000 through encirclement and the capture of the emperor himself.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3481,"children":3483},{"href":3482},"#reference-38",[3484],{"type":506,"value":3485},"[38]",{"type":506,"value":3487}," This rout fragmented Byzantine defenses in Anatolia, inviting Oghuz tribes to settle and raid unchecked, while Alp Arslan secured Syria and Palestine, extracting tribute from Fatimid Egypt. Under Malik Shah I (r. 1072-1092), the empire peaked with campaigns reaching Yemen and the Caucasus; a 1088 expedition of 50,000 under emir Porsuk reinforced Anatolian gains, and diplomatic marriages with local dynasties stabilized frontiers.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3489,"children":3491},{"href":3490},"#reference-39",[3492],{"type":506,"value":3493},"[39]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3495,"children":3496},{},[3497,3499,3505,3507],{"type":506,"value":3498},"Empire building emphasized institutionalization, with Persian vizier Nizam al-Mulk (d. 1092) reforming administration from 1063 by centralizing tax collection via the diwan, assigning military iqtas to prevent nomadic unrest, and founding Nizamiyya madrasas in Baghdad, Nishapur, and Isfahan to propagate Sunni orthodoxy and train bureaucrats.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3500,"children":3502},{"href":3501},"#reference-40",[3503],{"type":506,"value":3504},"[40]",{"type":506,"value":3506}," These measures, detailed in Nizam's Siyasatnama, balanced Turkic military prowess with Persian fiscal expertise, enabling governance over diverse populations from Transoxiana to the Mediterranean, though underlying tribal rivalries foreshadowed later fragmentation.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3508,"children":3509},{"href":3501},[3510],{"type":506,"value":3504},{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":3512,"children":3514},{"id":3513},"pecheneg-and-cuman-invasions-of-europe",[3515],{"type":506,"value":3516},"Pecheneg and Cuman Invasions of Europe",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3518,"children":3519},{},[3520,3522,3528],{"type":506,"value":3521},"The Pechenegs, a confederation of Turkic nomadic tribes originating from the eastern steppes, began migrating westward in the 9th century, driven by conflicts with Oghuz groups and later intensified pressure from the Kipchaks (Cumans). By the early 10th century, they had established dominance north of the Black Sea and Danube, periodically raiding Byzantine territories in the Balkans. A major displacement occurred around 1030–1040 when Cuman incursions from the east forced large Pecheneg groups across the Danube into Bulgarian and Byzantine lands, initiating sustained invasions that destabilized the region's frontiers.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3523,"children":3525},{"href":3524},"#reference-41",[3526],{"type":506,"value":3527},"[41]",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3529,"children":3531},{"href":3530},"#reference-42",[3532],{"type":506,"value":3533},"[42]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3535,"children":3536},{},[3537,3539,3545],{"type":506,"value":3538},"In 1046–1047, under chieftain Tirakh, Pechenegs launched a massive winter crossing of the frozen Danube, invading Thrace and northern Bulgaria, where they plundered settlements and clashed with imperial forces, marking one of the earliest large-scale breaches of Byzantine Balkan defenses. Subsequent raids in the 1050s–1060s, including alliances with Uzes (another Turkic group) in 1064, saw Pechenegs and allies penetrate deep into the empire, sacking cities like Philippopolis and contributing to internal Byzantine instability amid succession crises. By 1078, Pecheneg bands supported rebel general Nikephoros Botaneiates' march on Constantinople, further eroding imperial control over the Balkans.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3540,"children":3542},{"href":3541},"#reference-43",[3543],{"type":506,"value":3544},"[43]",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3546,"children":3548},{"href":3547},"#reference-44",[3549],{"type":506,"value":3550},"[44]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3552,"children":3553},{},[3554,3556],{"type":506,"value":3555},"The culminating Pecheneg offensive unfolded in 1087–1091, when tens of thousands, fleeing Cuman pursuit, flooded south across the Danube under leaders like Togortak and Maniamos, ravaging Wallachia, Bulgaria, and Thrace; they besieged Philippopolis and advanced toward Constantinople, prompting Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to recruit Norman and Cuman auxiliaries. The decisive Battle of Mount Levounion on April 29, 1091, resulted in a catastrophic Pecheneg defeat, with heavy casualties from imperial cataphracts and allied archers; survivors were either incorporated as foederati or sold into slavery, effectively ending Pecheneg military power in Europe. These invasions strained Byzantine resources, accelerated the militarization of the theme system, and facilitated Seljuk gains in Anatolia by diverting imperial attention westward.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3557,"children":3559},{"href":3558},"#reference-45",[3560],{"type":506,"value":3561},"[45]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3563,"children":3564},{},[3565,3567,3573],{"type":506,"value":3566},"The Cumans (Kipchaks), another western Turkic nomadic federation, advanced into the Pontic steppe in the mid-11th century, supplanting the Pechenegs and initiating raids across Eastern Europe as far as the Carpathians and Kievan Rus'. Their mobility and composite bows enabled hit-and-run tactics, with early incursions into Rus' principalities recorded from 1054–1055, when they defeated Prince Vseslav of Polotsk near the Alta River, exploiting inter-princely feuds for tribute and slaves. By 1068, Cuman forces under khans like Boniak invaded Hungary, devastating the eastern plains during King Solomon's civil war, burning settlements and compelling Hungarian consolidation under Géza I.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3568,"children":3570},{"href":3569},"#reference-46",[3571],{"type":506,"value":3572},"[46]",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3574,"children":3576},{"href":3575},"#reference-47",[3577],{"type":506,"value":3578},"[47]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3580,"children":3581},{},[3582,3584,3588],{"type":506,"value":3583},"Throughout the 1070s–1090s, Cumans conducted over a dozen major raids into Kievan Rus', allying variably with princes like Oleg Sviatoslavich against rivals, as in the 1078–1096 campaigns that sacked Chernigov and Pereiaslav; these incursions fragmented Rus' unity and prompted defensive coalitions, such as the 1103 Dolobsk victory under Vladimir Monomakh. In the Balkans, Cumans exploited Pecheneg collapse, raiding Bulgaria in 1094–1096 alongside Byzantine campaigns and briefly allying with Alexios I against Pechenegs before turning to independent plundering. 12th-century activities included support for Hungarian kings against Byzantium, as in the 1120s–1140s, and intermittent thrusts into Serbia and Wallachia, though declining after Rus' counteroffensives like the 1111 Salnita River battle. Cuman pressures ultimately facilitated Mongol dominance post-1220s, with remnants fleeing to Hungary and Bulgaria, where they integrated as cavalry elites.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3585,"children":3586},{"href":3530},[3587],{"type":506,"value":3533},{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3589,"children":3590},{"href":3547},[3591],{"type":506,"value":3550},{"data":3593,"body":3594},{},{"type":498,"children":3595},[3596,3824,3830,3855,3878,3897,3912,3918,3927,3942,3957],{"type":501,"tag":591,"props":3597,"children":3598},{},[3599,3613],{"type":501,"tag":595,"props":3600,"children":3601},{},[3602],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3603,"children":3604},{},[3605,3609],{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":3606,"children":3607},{},[3608],{"type":506,"value":607},{"type":501,"tag":603,"props":3610,"children":3611},{},[3612],{"type":506,"value":612},{"type":501,"tag":614,"props":3614,"children":3615},{},[3616,3633,3650,3667,3684,3701,3718,3735,3752,3773,3790,3807],{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3617,"children":3618},{},[3619,3628],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3620,"children":3621},{},[3622],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3623,"children":3625},{"className":3624},[],[3626],{"type":506,"value":3627},"1101",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3629,"children":3630},{},[3631],{"type":506,"value":3632},"Kılıç Arslan I of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm defeats Stephen of Blois and Hugh of Vermandois, of the second wave of First Crusades.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3634,"children":3635},{},[3636,3645],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3637,"children":3638},{},[3639],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3640,"children":3642},{"className":3641},[],[3643],{"type":506,"value":3644},"1104",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3646,"children":3647},{},[3648],{"type":506,"value":3649},"Tuğtekin, atabeg of Damascus founds a short lived principality in Syria. 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Their territory is annexed by Kılıç Arslan II.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":3808,"children":3809},{},[3810,3819],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3811,"children":3812},{},[3813],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":3814,"children":3816},{"className":3815},[],[3817],{"type":506,"value":3818},"1190",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":3820,"children":3821},{},[3822],{"type":506,"value":3823},"German Holy Roman emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and a contingent of the Third Crusade defeat the Turks at the Battle of Konya (Iconium) in Southern Anatolia. He subsequently drowns whilst crossing the Göksu River, near Silifke.",{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":3825,"children":3827},{"id":3826},"seljuk-fragmentation-and-sultanates",[3828],{"type":506,"value":3829},"Seljuk Fragmentation and Sultanates",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3831,"children":3832},{},[3833,3835,3841,3843,3847,3849],{"type":506,"value":3834},"The death of Sultan Malik Shah I in November 1092, amid the assassination of his vizier Nizam al-Mulk earlier that year, precipitated a succession crisis that fragmented the Seljuk Empire into rival factions led by Malik Shah's sons and relatives.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3836,"children":3838},{"href":3837},"#reference-48",[3839],{"type":506,"value":3840},"[48]",{"type":506,"value":3842}," Barkiyaruq, proclaimed sultan in 1094 at age twelve, struggled against uncles like Tutush I of Syria and brothers including Muhammad Tapar, resulting in a decade of intermittent civil wars that eroded central authority.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3844,"children":3845},{"href":3837},[3846],{"type":506,"value":3840},{"type":506,"value":3848}," Muhammad I Tapar eventually prevailed, ruling as sultan from 1105 to 1118 and attempting to restore unity, but his death sparked further disputes, notably between his son Mahmud II and brother Ahmad Sanjar, who controlled the eastern provinces from 1097.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3850,"children":3852},{"href":3851},"#reference-49",[3853],{"type":506,"value":3854},"[49]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3856,"children":3857},{},[3858,3860,3864,3866,3872,3874],{"type":506,"value":3859},"Ahmad Sanjar's reign as de facto sovereign sultan from 1118 to 1157 saw initial stability in Khorasan and Transoxiana, but external defeats accelerated decline. His army's loss to the Qara Khitai at the Battle of Qatwan on September 9, 1141, compelled tribute payments and undermined prestige.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3861,"children":3862},{"href":3851},[3863],{"type":506,"value":3854},{"type":506,"value":3865}," Internal pressures culminated in the 1153 Oghuz revolt, where nomadic Ghuzz tribes defeated and captured Sanjar near Merv, plundering cities like Merv and Nishapur while holding him prisoner until 1156.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3867,"children":3869},{"href":3868},"#reference-50",[3870],{"type":506,"value":3871},"[50]",{"type":506,"value":3873}," Sanjar's death in 1157 left the eastern Seljuks without effective leadership, fostering the rise of atabegs and local powers such as the Khwarazmshahs.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3875,"children":3876},{"href":3851},[3877],{"type":506,"value":3854},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3879,"children":3880},{},[3881,3883,3889,3891,3895],{"type":506,"value":3882},"In Anatolia, the Sultanate of Rum, established by Suleiman ibn Qutalmish around 1077, achieved greater autonomy post-1092, transitioning from vassalage to an independent polity centered at Konya after Crusader pressures displaced it from Nicaea in 1097.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3884,"children":3886},{"href":3885},"#reference-51",[3887],{"type":506,"value":3888},"[51]",{"type":506,"value":3890}," Under Masud I (r. 1116–1156), Rum consolidated against Danishmend and Byzantine rivals, while Kilij Arslan II (r. 1156–1192) expanded aggressively, culminating in the victory over Emperor Manuel I Komnenos at the Battle of Myriokephalon on September 17, 1176, which halted Byzantine reconquest efforts in Anatolia.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3892,"children":3893},{"href":3885},[3894],{"type":506,"value":3888},{"type":506,"value":3896}," This battle solidified Rum's dominance over central and eastern Anatolia, fostering Turkic settlement and Persianate administration.",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3898,"children":3899},{},[3900,3902,3906,3908],{"type":506,"value":3901},"Western branches fragmented into atabeg principalities, where Seljuk-appointed military governors assumed hereditary rule. In Mosul and Aleppo, the Zengid dynasty under Imad al-Din Zengi (d. 1146) captured Edessa from Crusaders on December 24, 1144, establishing a semi-independent state that checked Latin advances until Nur al-Din Zengi's expansions in Syria.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3903,"children":3904},{"href":3885},[3905],{"type":506,"value":3888},{"type":506,"value":3907}," Similarly, Artuqid atabegs controlled Diyarbakir from 1102, and in Fars and Kirman, Seljuk lines persisted until the Kirman branch fell to the Ghuzz in 1186. Nominally, the Great Seljuk title continued under Mahmud II (1118–1131) and successors like Muhammad II (1159–1176) and Tughril III (1176–1194), but real power devolved to regional sultans and emirs, setting the stage for Mongol incursions.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3909,"children":3910},{"href":3851},[3911],{"type":506,"value":3854},{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":3913,"children":3915},{"id":3914},"turkic-settlement-in-anatolia",[3916],{"type":506,"value":3917},"Turkic Settlement in Anatolia",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3919,"children":3920},{},[3921,3923],{"type":506,"value":3922},"The 12th century marked a phase of consolidation for Turkic settlement in Anatolia under the Sultanate of Rum, where nomadic Turkmen tribes, initially drawn by opportunities for plunder and pasture after the 1071 Battle of Manzikert, began establishing more enduring footholds amid stabilizing Seljuk governance. Turkmen groups settled along the Byzantine frontiers, exploiting available grazing lands without centralized state-directed policies, leading to gradual demographic shifts through ongoing immigration and local intermarriages.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3924,"children":3925},{"href":3885},[3926],{"type":506,"value":3888},{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3928,"children":3929},{},[3930,3932,3936],{"type":506,"value":3931},"Sultan Masʿud I (r. 1116–1156) played a pivotal role in reviving Seljuk authority following the setbacks of the First Crusade, which had briefly disrupted western expansions by capturing Nicaea in 1097. Masʿud repelled incursions from the Second Crusade, including victories over German and French forces in 1147 near Dorylaeum and Mount Cadmus, thereby securing central Anatolian territories like Iconium (modern Konya) as bases for further tribal influxes and defensive fortifications. These military successes enabled the allocation of iqtaʾ lands to Turkic warriors, encouraging semi-sedentary lifestyles among pastoralists in river valleys and plateaus.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3933,"children":3934},{"href":3885},[3935],{"type":506,"value":3888},{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3937,"children":3939},{"href":3938},"#reference-52",[3940],{"type":506,"value":3941},"[52]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3943,"children":3944},{},[3945,3947,3951],{"type":506,"value":3946},"Under Kilij Arslan II (r. 1156–1192), the sultanate expanded aggressively, absorbing rival principalities such as the Danishmends and countering Byzantine offensives. The Battle of Myriokephalon on September 17, 1176, saw Rum Seljuk forces ambush and decisively defeat Emperor Manuel I Komnenos's army in the mountains west of Iconium, shattering Byzantine ambitions to reclaim Anatolia and opening western regions to intensified Turkmen settlement. This victory, leveraging light cavalry tactics suited to the terrain, solidified Seljuk dominance over the peninsula's interior, fostering urban development in Konya and the proliferation of Turkic cultural institutions like madrasas.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3948,"children":3949},{"href":3885},[3950],{"type":506,"value":3888},{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":3952,"children":3954},{"href":3953},"#reference-53",[3955],{"type":506,"value":3956},"[53]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":3958,"children":3959},{},[3960,3962,3966],{"type":506,"value":3961},"By the late 12th century, Anatolia's landscape had transformed, with Turkic pastoralism supplanting Byzantine agrarian patterns in many areas, though full demographic Turkification remained a protracted process extending beyond this period. 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Most Kyrgyz tribes migrate to present-day Kyrgyzstan.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":4316,"children":4317},{},[4318,4326],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":4319,"children":4320},{},[4321],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":4322,"children":4324},{"className":4323},[],[4325],{"type":506,"value":4309},{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":4327,"children":4328},{},[4329],{"type":506,"value":4330},"Codex Cumanicus A Kipchak dictionary written for Latins.",{"type":501,"tag":599,"props":4332,"children":4333},{},[4334,4343],{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":4335,"children":4336},{},[4337],{"type":501,"tag":625,"props":4338,"children":4340},{"className":4339},[],[4341],{"type":506,"value":4342},"1299",{"type":501,"tag":621,"props":4344,"children":4345},{},[4346],{"type":506,"value":4347},"Ottoman beylik was founded by Osman I",{"type":501,"tag":584,"props":4349,"children":4351},{"id":4350},"mongol-conquests-of-turkic-states",[4352],{"type":506,"value":4353},"Mongol Conquests of Turkic States",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":4355,"children":4356},{},[4357,4359],{"type":506,"value":4358},"The Mongol conquests in the 13th century profoundly disrupted major Turkic polities, including the Khwarezmian Empire, Kipchak confederations, and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, leading to their subjugation or incorporation into the Mongol Empire. These campaigns, initiated under Genghis Khan and continued by his successors, exploited internal divisions and superior Mongol military tactics, resulting in widespread devastation and the integration of surviving Turkic elites into Mongol administrative structures.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":4360,"children":4362},{"href":4361},"#reference-54",[4363],{"type":506,"value":4364},"[54]",{"type":501,"tag":502,"props":4366,"children":4367},{},[4368,4370,4374,4376,4380,4382],{"type":506,"value":4369},"The invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire, a Turkic-ruled state spanning Central Asia and Persia, commenced in 1218 after the governor of Otrar executed Mongol merchants and envoys sent by Genghis Khan.",{"type":501,"tag":527,"props":4371,"children":4372},{"href":4361},[4373],{"type":506,"value":4364},{"type":506,"value":4375}," By 1220, Mongol forces under generals Jebe and Subutai had captured key cities including Samarkand and Bukhara, while Shah Muhammad II fled westward and died in exile; 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